Our seismic data are a kind of digital palimpsest: a manuscript written on imperfectly erased reused paper that contains multiple overlapping layers of writing. Each layer of writing has its own story; it may be fresh and distinct, easy to read, or broken up into fragments and faded into near invisibility. In our processing we typically pay the most attention to the data layer that we plan to use for imaging, and ignore the others to the extent that we can get away with doing so. The deeper layers become “noise”. However, the better we can understand the various layers of the data, the better we can turn each layer into either additional useful signal or structured (i.e. predictable) noise. Preserving the structure of the noise is important. It allows us to do better, possibly much better, than we could by treating it as Gaussian random noise. For random noise the best we can typically do is stacking. While stacking is a powerful tool, its noise-suppression abilities are effective only up to a point. Each incremental increase in the stack size N costs the same to acquire, yet results in ever less S/N improvement. Even worse, noise in real data often contains statistical outliers that will dominate over the noise-suppression power of stack as N becomes large. We can damage our data at every step of the process from acquisition to final delivered product. If you are not checking for problems, you may be unaware that anything is amiss. The next game-changing improvement in our ability to guide business decisions by producing higher-quality Earth images may only happen if we can treat our seismic data with greater scientific rigor than has been standard practice. The goal of this book is to teach you the skills that you will need to do that.

It is my great pleasure to introduce you to some of the amazing aspects of fiber optic distributed acoustic sensing (DAS) technology. In order to motivate the need to better understand this technology, I’ll start by reviewing some of the diverse applications that are using it. You may be familiar with some of these applications but perhaps not all of them. I’ll delve into an explanation of DAS physics and instrumentation in subsequent chapters.

After reading this short-course book, the seismic interpreter should be able to: use attributes to quantify geometric, dynamic, kinematic, statistical, and geomechanical properties of the 3D seismic data volume, use 3D visualization and multiattribute crossplots to interactively enhance and isolate geologic features that otherwise might be overlooked, use concepts of geomorphology, diagenesis, and tectonic deformation to integrate seismic and well-log data within an appropriate geologic framework, use classical statistics and modern machine learning to establish correlations between 3D seismic data, rock properties, and engineering data that then can be employed to predict future rates of penetration, well-completion success, and well-fluid production, and use seismic attributes computed from 3D seismic data as the framework for data integration throughout the lifespan of the oil field.

Abstract 3C seismic applications provide enhanced rock property characterization of the reservoir that can complement P-wave methods. Continued interest in converted P- to S-waves (PS-waves) and vertical seismic profiles (VSPs) has resulted in the steady development of advanced vector wavefield techniques. PS-wave images along with VSP data can be used to help P-wave interpretation of structure in gas obscured zones, of elastic and fluid properties for lithology discrimination from S-wave impedance and density inversion in unconventional reservoirs, and of fracture characterization and stress monitoring from S-wave birefringence (splitting) analysis. The book, which accompanies the 2016 SEG Distinguished Instructor Short Course, presents an overview of 3C seismic theory and practical application: from fundamentals of PS-waves and VSPs, through to acquisition and processing including interpretation techniques. The emphasis is on unique aspects of vector wavefields, anisotropy, and the important relationships that unify S-waves and P-waves. Various applications and case studies demonstrate image benefits from PS-waves, elastic properties and fluid discrimination from joint inversion of amplitude variations with offset/angle (AVO/A), and VSP methods for anisotropic velocity model building and improved reservoir imaging. The book will be of interest to geophysicists, geologists, and engineers, especially those involved with or considering the use of AVO/A inversion, fracture/stress characterization analyses, or interpretation in gas-obscured reservoirs.

Abstract The subject of seismic anisotropy has a long history, but only recently has it come to be seen as a central feature of geophysics, as applied to the exploration for hydrocarbons and to their exploitation. The reason for the long neglect of anisotropy is, of course, that isotropy is simpler. The equations are simpler, and the application of one's intuition is more direct. And, perhaps because of their simplicity, these basic, isotropic ideas have enabled the discovery most of the world's known hydrocarbons.

Abstract Microseismic monitoring is the key technology to image hydraulic fractures. With the recent industry focus on unconventional resources and the associated need for effective hydraulic fracture treatments to stimulate flow, microseismic monitoring has become a commonplace technology in the geophysical community. Microseismic has long been a niche geophysical technology to image fracturing, but the expansion of the technology over the last decade is evident by the increasing number of workshops, papers in various publications, and the sheer number of papers and associated dedicated sessions at the SEG annual meeting. This work aims to provide a practical user guide for survey design, quality control, interpretation, and application of microseismic hydraulic fracture monitoring. The book is intended to provide a comprehensive educational resource for microseismic hydraulic fracture imaging, with a focus on practical tips for executing a successful microseismic project. Limitations of the data and potential pitfalls are emphasized throughout.

Abstract Time-lapse (4D) seismic technology is a key enabler for improved hydrocarbon recovery and more cost-effective field operations. Practical Applications of Time-lapse Seismic Data (SEG Distinguished Instructor Series No. 16) shows how 4D seismic data are used for reservoir surveillance, how they provide valuable insight on dynamic reservoir properties such as fluid saturation, pressure, and temperature, and how they add value to reservoir management. The material, based on the 2013 SEG Distinguished Instructor Short Course, includes discussions of reservoir-engineering concepts and rock physics critical to the understanding of 4D data, along with topics in 4D seismic acquisition and processing. A primary focus of the book is interpretation and data integration. Case-study examples are used to demonstrate key concepts and are drawn on to demonstrate the range of interpretation methods currently employed by industry and the diversity of geologic settings and production scenarios in which 4D is making a difference. Time-lapse seismic interpretation is inherently integrative, drawing on geophysical, geologic, and reservoir-engineering data and concepts. As a result, this book should be of interest to individuals from all subsurface disciplines.

Abstract Elements of Seismic Dispersion: A Somewhat Practical Guide to Frequency-dependent Phenomena (SEG Distinguished Instructor Series No. 15) covers selected effects encountered in the acquisition, processing, and interpretation of reflectionseismic data. The material, based on the 2012 SEG Distinguished Instructor Short Course, shows how those phenomena arise, how they can be characterized, and the important information they contain. The text shows how spectral decomposition and time-frequency methods have led to improved understanding and use of nonlinear harmonics, near-surface guided waves, layer-induced anisotropy, velocity dispersion and attenuation, interference, and Biot reflection. Accessible discussion is augmented by examples, figures, and references to primary literature for further study. This book will interest technical managers and those who work in acquisition, processing, and interpretation of seismic data. (DISC on DVD, 761A, is also available.)

Abstract During the last few years, seismic acquisition has gone through a phase of fast acceleration, attested to by the development of wide-azimuth surveys, the continuous increase in channel count, and the progress in simultaneous shooting. These developments, made possible by technological advancements today, will enable the production of clearer seismic images tomorrow. Seismic Acquisition from Yesterday to Tomorrow (SEG Distinguished Instructor Series No. 14), the companion book for the 2011 SEG/EAGE Distinguished Instructor Short Course, offers a reflection on this evolution. It starts with a short historical overview, followed by discussions of signal and noise. The core of the book is the relationship between acquisition parameters and seismicimage quality. It will provide geoscientists and all those interested in seismic images with the still unconventional view of seismic data acquisition as the first component of seismic imaging.

Abstract This is a recording of the 2010 Distinguished Instructor Short Course (DISC) by Colin Sayers. The state of stress within the earth has a profound effect on the propagation of seismic and borehole acoustic waves, this leads to many important applications of elastic waves for solving problems in petroleum geomechanics. This course provides an overview of the sensitivity of elastic waves in the earth to the insitu stress, pore pressure, and anisotropy of the rock fabric resulting from the depositional and stress history of the rock, and introduces some of the applications of this sensitivity. The course will provide the basis for applying geophysics and rock physics solutions to geomechanical challenges in exploration, drilling, and production. See catalog #233A for the accompanying DISC book.

Abstract Petroleum Geoengineering: Integration of Static and Dynamic Models (SEG Distinguished Instructor Series No. 12) explores improved linkage among techniques used at various scales to describe and model petroleum reservoirs. The book, which accompanies the 2009 SEG/EAGE Distinguished Instructor Short Course, is aimed at a broad range of geoscientists and engineers working in the petroleum industry. The ultimate objectives are to enable technical staff members to maximize the recovery of hydrocarbons. The impact of petrophysical heterogeneity at various scales on the recovery of oil and gas provides the focus for the book. The integrated nature of the book makes it suitable for people from all subsurface disciplines (geology, geophysics, petrophysics, geomodeling, and reservoir and petroleum engineering). Petroleum Geoengineering is also very suitable for directing teams of subsurface staff members. (DISC on DVD, 758A, is also available.)

Abstract Reservoir Geophysics: Applications (SEG Distinguished Instructor Series No. 11) covers the application and impact of seismic data on oil and gas reservoirs. The material, based on the 2008 SEG/ EAGE Distinguished Instructor Short Course, shows how geoscientists use seismic data to determine critical reservoir characteristics in the stages of project life from delineation through secondary recovery. The text describes the main business drivers of the operator and how seismic data help to address subsurface uncertainties for business purposes. The book discusses delineation, development, production, and geophysics applications in heavy-oil and carbonate reservoirs. Also included are two hands-on student problems based on actual projects. Illustrations include examples that focus on business value. The book will be of interest to geoscientists, managers, and operators. (DISC on DVD, 757A, is also available.)

Abstract Concepts and Applications in 3D Seismic Imaging (SEG Distinguished Instructor Series No. 10) provides a broad and intuitive understanding of seismic-imaging concepts and methods that enables geoscientists to make appropriate decisions during acquisition, processing, imaging, and interpretation. This book, first published for use with the SEG/EAGE 2007 Distinguished Instructor Short Course, also exposes participants to current trends in imaging research and empowers them to adopt new technologies quickly. Seismic images are the basis of critical exploration, development, and production decisions. Optimal use of these images requires full understanding of the processes that create them, from data acquisition to final migration. (DISC on DVD, 756A, is also available.)

Abstract Jeolojik ve petrol verilerini birinden diğerine değiştirmek için kullanılan format. Shaw and Walker (1989) 'a bk. AVO da intercept ve eğimin kombinazon şekillerini gösterirler. Böylece tek bir indekste birleşilir. Genlik A+Bsin 2 θ ile verilir. θ geliş açısıdır. Kar getirmeyecek hale geldiği zaman bir petrol ya da gaz kuyusunu terk etmek. Terk etmeden önce kuyudan boruların bir bölümü çıkartılır ve formasyonlar arasında sıvı akışını önlemek için çimentolanır. Yüzeye yakın kaynaklardan gelen kırılmış dalgaların varış zamanlarından kıran tabakanın derinliğini saptama yöntemidir. Özellikle bozulmuş tabakanın (weathering) üzerindeki kaynak kullanılarak bu bölgenin kalınlığını bulmakta kullanılır. Şekil A-1 'e bk. Düşük hızlı tabakadaki zaman t w , bazen bir k-factor 'ü ile çarpılarak düşey weathering zamanı elde edilir. Özdirenç ve kuyu logu etütlerinde akım elektrotlarıdır. Akım A ve B noktaları arasından verilirken gerilim M ve N elektrotları arasında ölçülür. Şekil A-18, A-19 ve E-10 'a bk. Elektrotlardan en az bir tanesi yüzeydedir. Commutative 'e bk. Norveçli matematikçi Niels Henrik Abel (1802-29) onuruna verilen isim. Bir bilgisayar programının donanım ya da yazılım hatasından ötürü zamansız durmasına denilir. Fiil şekli abort tur. Gözenek sıvısı ile normal basınç= normal pressure arasındaki farktır. Normal basınç yüzeye kadar uzanan kolondaki formasyon sıvısının basıncıdır (hidrostatik basınç). Normal basınçtan küçük olan sıvı basıncına düşük basınçlı= underpressure veya subpressure ve büyük olan da yüksek basınçlı= over-pressure denir. Normal olmayan basıncın sismikteki etkileri. Sheriff and Geldart (1995, 126-128. Tamamlanmadan son bulma. Bir bilgisayar programının tamamlanmadan son bulması gibi. axial surface 'e bk. Gradient dizini. array (electrical) 'a bk. Yerin gravite alanının mutlak ivmesi. Bunun karşıtı görecel gravimetrelerle ölçülen göreceli gravitedir. Mutlak gravite küçük bir vakum kutu içine yerleştirilmiş köşe-küp yansıtıcı kullanarak ölçülebilir. Yansıtıcının konumu bir laser interferometre ile ölçülür. Taşınabilir mutlak gravite ölçerler araştırmada kullanmak için denenmektedirler. Fiber optikle birleştirilen çiftler halinde çalışırlar ve gravite gradiyentini ölçerler. Niebauer et al. (1995) ve Brown et al. (2000) 'e bk. Enerjiyi yansıtmayan bir sınırdır. Sismik dalga enerjisinin bir bölümünün bir ortamdan geçerken ısıya dönüşmesidir. Sismik dalgalarda soğurma tipik olarak 0.25 dB/cycle dır ve 0.5 db/cycle büyüklüğüne kadar çıkabilir. Q , Toksöz and Johnston (1982) ve Şekil A-2 'ye bk. Soğurma genlik ve hızın frekansla değişimini içerir. Onun için yüksek frekansları söndürme ve dalga biçimini değiştirme mekanizmalarından biridir. [peg-leg multiple'ları soğurma içermezler ancak benzer etkiler yaparlar]. 2 . Yayılan enerjinin diğer enerji biçimlerine dönüştürülme işlemi. 3 . Bir maddenin molekül ya da iyonlarının bir katı ya da sıvının içerisine girmesidir. Soğrulma terimleri. E=enerji, ΔE bir devirdeki enerji kaybı, λ=dalga boyu, f=frekans, x=uzaklık, t=zaman, A/A 0 genlik/başlangıç genliği, A 1 /A 2 = genlik/bir devir sonraki genlik. Sheriff (1989, 330 'dan alınmıştır.

Abstract The people of Saudi Arabia know about our business. This book is about two camels. One is the 4D-seismic-data camel that should be welcomed into the reservoir-management tent, provided it does not bring all its multifold baggage with it. The other is the financialaccountant camel that is forcing its way into the geoscience tent, demanding to be fed. This camel cannot be satisfied by our hunches and hopes - this camel wants to chew on the current status of our assets and our quantitative predictions of how those assets will perform. The aim of this book is to help two camels with one throw, so to speak. Four-dimensional reservoir monitoring enables us to know what is happening to properties in oil-producing reservoirs, in 3D space and time. This knowledge is enormously important and increasingly urgent. Worldwide, the remaining discovered oil reserves are now just about as large as those already consumed. That is a vast amount of oil, but it is being consumed rapidly, and additional conventional reserves are increasingly hard to find. It is imperative for the industry and for consumers that we produce this remaining oil as reliably and efficiently as we can. If we do not know what is happening in our reservoirs, we cannot hope to produce them optimally. Optimization includes aspects of safety, environmental impact, recovery factor, timeliness and, of course, cost and profit. Four-dimensional seismic data can be a major contributor to the knowledge of what is happening and where it is happening in our reservoirs. We need to work as quickly as possible with those who can use this knowledge, so we all can benefit from 4D surveys. We do not yet know how much recovery improvement ultimately will be possible, but it is proving to be profitable to find out. Currently, the cost of extra oil recovered as a result of 4D knowledge and appropriate action may be as low as $1 per barrel (bbl). That should leave more than $40 per bbl for investing in further improvements. The simple physical principles of the 4D seismic method are shown in Figure 1-1. If we survey a producing oil or gas field before and during production, we can estimate changes to the reservoir. As hydrocarbons are replaced by water and as pressure changes, the seismic velocity and density of the reservoir change. From 4D surveys, we can measure the effects of those changes and identify where the changes are occurring in the reservoir.

Abstract This course provides the working geophysicist with a broad overview of the petroleum systems of deepwater settings. The six main elements of petroleum systems will be covered: reservoirs, traps, seals, source rocks, generation, migration, and timing. The course is designed to teach students approximately 80% of what is important. For those interested in further study of a specific topic, each chapter has extensive references for the current literature. About 10% of the current cutting-edge information remains proprietary and cannot be included. Deepwater depositional systems are the one type of reservoir system that cannot be easily reached, observed, and studied in the modern environment, in contrast to other sili-ciclastic and carbonate reservoir systems. The study of deepwater systems requires many remote-observation systems, each of which can provide only one view of the entire depositional system. As a consequence, the study and understanding of deepwater depositional systems as reservoirs have lagged behind those of the other reservoir systems, whose modern processes are more easily observed and documented. For this reason, geoscientists use an integrated approach, working in interdisciplinary teams with multiple data types (Figure 1-1). The types of data used in the study of deep-water deposits include detailed outcrop studies, 2D and 3D seismic-reflection data (both for shallow and deep resolution), cores, log suites, and biostratigraphy. These data sets are routinely incorporated into computer reservoir modeling and simulation (Figure 1-1). The following chapters integrate all of these data types and disciplines to characterize the many facets of deepwater systems. Technologies for deepwater exploration and development are improving rapidly. The intent of the course is to provide information that will be usable even as the technologies advance beyond what we present here. With that in mind, this chapter introduces basic deepwater terminology and concepts for deepwater systems that will be used throughout this book. Geoscientists routinely use several terms to describe the sedimentary processes and characteristics of deepwater settings and deposits. For the sake of consistency in this book, we define these terms as follows. The term deep water is used informally in industry in two ways. First, deep water refers to sediments deposited in water depths considered to be “deep,” i.e., those under gravity-flow processes and located somewhere in the upper- to middle-slope region of a basin. Sediment gravity-flow processes are operative in lakes in relatively shallow water and in cratonic basins where water depths may be less than 300 m. Thus, unless stated otherwise, we use the term deepwater systems to refer to marine-sediment gravity-flow processes, environments, and deposits.

Abstract In this introduction, we would like to highlight what appear to be the important landmarks in the history of geostatistical applications in the petroleum industry. What do we mean by "geostatistics?" In this course, this term will cover the petroleum applications resulting from the pioneering work of Prof. Georges Matheron and his Research Group at the Centre de Géostatistique de l'Ecole des Mines de Paris. As far as this course is concerned, the main pillars of this work are the developments of variogrambased modeling applications. Variogram-based modeling applications can be classified in two broad categories, the first of which can be called deterministic geostatistics and is essentially all the development around kriging. We will see later that this covers a very wide number of techniques, including external drift kriging, error cokriging, factorial kriging, and collocated cokriging. Although kriging is a technique based on a stochastic model, it generates one single model as a result, and it is deterministic in that sense. The second category can be called stochastic geostatistics, and it covers the numerous techniques developed around the conditional simulation concept. Conditional simulation is stochastic in the sense that, as with the Monte-Carlo simulation, it generates a family of "realizations" of 1D, 2D, or 3D models, all compatible with the a priori model and the existing data. With regard to kriging, conditional simulation includes several techniques, such as indicator simulation, collocated cosimulation, or geostatistical inversion. This explains why this one-day course is subdivided in two half-days, the first half-day presenting the basic concepts and the deterministic family of applications, the second half-day covering the stochastic applications (Fig. 1-1). The most complete synthesis of Matheron's work can be found in Chilès and Delfiner (1999). Isaaks and Srivastava (1989), Hohn (1988), and Deutsch (2002) are also other excellent presentations of geostatistics. Following the work of Matheron, petroleum applications went through different episodes (Fig. 1-2). The first one could be qualified as deterministic mapping. This was the first development of kriging for mapping applications; see, for instance, the papers of Haas and Viallix (1974) or Haas and Jousselin (1976). This period saw the development of commercial mapping applications, such as Bluepack (Renard, 1990). Another important step in the development of 2D mapping applications was Doyen's (1988) paper showing the potential of cokriging for mapping porosity using seismic-derived information and well data. The mid-1980s to mid-1990s saw the explosion of 3D stochastic (simulationbased) reservoir modeling.

Abstract “All rock masses are seismically anisotropic, but we generally ignore this in seismic acquisition, processing, and interpretation. The anisotropy nonetheless does affect data, in ways that limit the effectiveness with which we can use it, as long as we ignore it. This book, produced for use with the 2002 SEG/EAGE Distinguished Instructor Short Course, helps us to understand why this inconsistency between reality and practice has been so successful in the past and why it will be less successful in the future as we acquire better seismic data (especially including vector seismic data) and correspondingly higher expectations of it. This book helps us to understand how we can modify our practice to more fully realize the potential inherent in data through algorithms which recognize the fact of seismic anisotropy. Sections include 1: Physical Principles, 2: P-waves (Subsurface Imaging), 3: P-waves (Subsurface Physical Characterization), 4: S-waves, and 5: C-waves. (DISC on DVD, 751A, is also available.)”

Abstract During the last 30 years, seismic interpreters have routinely applied bright spot and AVO technology for recognizing prospects and predicting lithology. New amplitude attributes were added to this technology as new exploration problems were defined. R&D continues in the field of amplitude interpretation, especially when E&P costs escalate as more severe environments are explored, such as the ultra-deepwater plays. With the high interest in reducing exploration risk, this course addresses the methodology of an amplitude interpretation and the subsequent benefits and limitations that one can expect in various rock-property settings. This book, originally produced for use with the fourth SEG∕EAGE Distinguished Instructor Short Course, begins with a review of relationships between rock properties and geophysical observations. Practical problems illustrate the assumptions and limitations of commonly used empirical transforms, and procedures for conducting and verifying fluid-substitution techniques are presented. The book identifies components of the seismic response best suited for differentiating pore fluid from lithologic effects. Field examples emphasize what combination of seismic signatures should be expected for different rock-property environments. To help select the best seismic attribute for calibrating amplitude to rock properties, rules of thumb are provided for predicting AVO responses and interpreting lithology from observed responses. A case history is also provided. The last part examines the numerous amplitude attributes that can be extracted from seismic data to quantify an interpretation. Benefits and limitations of these attributes in soft- to hard-rock environments are discussed with model data and in case histories.

Abstract “This book, produced for use with the third SEG/EAGE Distinguished Instructor Short Course, addresses the practical aspects of multicomponent data acquisition, processing, and interpretation. The first part of the book is devoted to overcoming the difficulties associated with shear-wave acquisition. Converted-mode operation is covered in detail using real-life examples. The particularities of sea-bottom receivers also are examined. The second part reviews the processing and the main challenges of the shear-converted modes: static corrections, gathering, velocity analysis, and compensation for shear-wave splitting in axial anisotropy. The book gives a detailed description of processing sequences, and 2D and 3D results, yielding natural axis orientation of layers, are compared in shear and PS converted modes. The third part is devoted to case histories in which new attributes, such as VP/VS ratio, crack density, or fracture orientation, are illustrated in a reservoircharacterization context. These case histories can guide the geophysicist to decide if a particular geologic situation can be handled best using shear waves.”