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Metalliferous Sediments Associated with Presently Forming Volcanogenic Massive Sulfides: The SuSu Knolls Hydrothermal Field, Eastern Manus Basin, Papua New Guinea
Two-XRD-line ferrihydrite and Fe-Si-Mn oxyhydroxide mineralization from Franklin Seamount, western Woodlark Basin, Papua New Guinea
Silver in sulfide chimneys and mounds from 13 degrees N and 21 degrees N, East Pacific Rise
Phase relations in the system Ga-Fe-S at 900 degrees C and 800 degrees C
14 C ages of hydrothermal petroleum and carbonate in Guaymas Basin, Gulf of California: Implications for oil generation, expulsion, and migration
Abstract The occurrence and distribution of gold in volcanogenic massive sulfides on the modern sea floor is a function of the physical and chemical characteristics of the hydrothermal fluids and theil ability to become saturated with respect to gold at a high concentration. Evidence from active hydrothermal vents at midocean ridges indicates that high-temperature (350°C) hydrothermal fluids may contain 0.1 to 0.2 μg/kg Au and could transport as much as 500 to 1,000 g Au/yr in a single deposit. However, in the absence of an effective precipitation mechanism, most of the gold in high-temperature vents may be lost to a diffuse hydrothermal plume and related metalliferous sediments. Associated high-temperature, Cu-Fe sulfides and subsea-floor stockwork mineralization are typically gold poor, containing ≤0.2 ppm Au. In contrast, low-temperature (<300°C) sulfides accumulating at or near the sea floor may contain up to 6.7 ppm Au. Gold-rich assemblages are formed at elevated sulfidation states and commonly contain high levels of Zn (>10%), Pb (>0.1%), Ag (>100 ppm), As (>200 ppm), and Sb (up to 500 ppm). High concentrations of H 2 S (up to 8.4 mmole/kg or 285 ppm) in the vent fluids stabilize Au(HS) 2 − complexes down to at least 200°C and account for the enrichment of gold in late-stage, low-temperature sulfides. Gold is precipitated from Au(HS) 2 − by oxidation during high-level mixing of the vent fluids with ambient seawater. The locus of mixing and the extent of sulfide-sulfate reactions are important controls on the site and temperature of gold mineralization. Precipitation of gold from AuCl 2 occurs in one deposit where fluids have acquired significantly elevated salinities. Similar patterns of gold enrichment in examples from ophiolite-hosted Cu pyrite, Phanerozoic Zn-Cu-Pb, and Archean Cu-Zn deposits suggest similar controls on the occurrence and distribution of gold in ancient volcanogenic massive sulfide ores.
Gold in sea-floor polymetallic sulfide deposits
Silver deposits associated with the Proterozoic rocks of the Thunder Bay District, Ontario
Geology and footwall alteration of the South Bay massive sulphide deposit, northwestern Ontario, Canada
Abstract Hydrothermal alteration halos associated with the formation of volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits were examined in terms of their size, chemical composition, mineralogy, and oxygen isotopic composition. Selected examples are: (i) Uwamuki deposits, Kosaka mine, northeast Japan (Kuroko); (ii) Seneca prospect, southwest British Columbia, Canada (Kuroko type); (iii) South Bay mine, northwest Ontario, Canada (Archean volcanogenic massive sulfide); and (iv) Corbet mine, northwest Quebec, Canada (Archean volcanogenic massive sulfide). Substantial mineralogical zoning is observed within thin Miocene footwall volcanic rocks of rhyolitic composition beneath the Uwamuki deposits. From core to margin the sequence is quartz + sericite; sericite + chlorite + quartz; remnant albite + sericite + chlorite + quartz; and kaolinite + quartz + sericite ± chlorite ± albite zones. Whole-rock δ 18 O (SMOW) values decrease gradually toward the center from 8.7 to 10.4 per mil in the kaolinite zone to 6.7 to 8.6 per mil in the quartz + sericite zone. Estimated temperatures of formation of these zonesare 210° to 250°C and 240° to 310°C, respectively. The. mineralogical zones have formed by lateral migration of hydrothermal solution which had ascended along the maiu discharge conduit. Impermeable Permo-Triassic chert and phyllite basement which unconformably underlies the volcanic rocks is virtually free from hydrothermal alteration (δ 18 O (SMOW) = 8.2-19.0‰). The mineral assemblage of the footwall tuff breccia at the Seneca prospect is quartz + chlorite ± albite ± sericite ± apatite ± epidote ± calcite ± K-feldspar ± maguetite ± sphene ± rutile. There is no apparent mineral zoning except for a laumontite-bearing zoue more than 1,200 m away from the orebody. On the other hand, whole-rock oxygen isotope composition and the ratio Fe/(Fe + Mg) in chlorite change systematically from δ 18 O (SMOW) = 6.9 per mil and Fe/(Fe + Mg) = 0.3 at the center of the mineralization to 11.6 per mil aud 0.6 at the margin. There is only very weak hydrothermal alteration withiu an impermeable lava flow unit which underlies the tuff breccia. Identical alteration zoning in terms of whole-rock δ 18 O values and chlorite compositions were observed in the flow top breccia of the footwall andesite lava of the Corbet deposit where δ 18 O decreases inward by about 7 per mil and the Fe/(Fe + Mg) ratio of chlorite decreases by 0.3 over a distance of about 1,500 m. In contrast, no oxygen isotope variation is observed in the rhyolite lava dome beneath the massive sulfide orebody of the South Bay deposit. However, both mineral assemblages and mineral compositions show remarkable lateral zoning for more than 1,000 m away from this deposit in response to outward increases in pH of the solution and in Fe/(Fe + Mg) ratios of ferromagnesian minerals during alteration reactions. Replacement of primary(?) ilmenite by rutile aud sphene uear the orebody was observed at both of these Archean volcanogenic massive Sulfide deposits. Many lines of evidence suggest the existence of contemporaneous high-level felsic plutons below many Kuroko and Archean deposits. These plutons are regarded as being indispensable as the source of metals and of heat to drive the geothermal systems. The overall similarities in the chemical, mineralogical, and isotopic characteristics of the studied footwall-rock alteration suggest that the genesis of volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits has uot changed appreciably for more than 2,700 m.y.