Abstract China has a rich record of Holocene volcanism that is relatively little known outside the country. It is encountered in large stratovolcanoes in the NE, linked to subduction of the Pacific plate (e.g. Changbaishan), in smaller volcanoes on the Tibetan margin, associated with the collision of India and Eurasia (e.g. Tengchong, Ashishan), and in more isolated centres, possibly resulting from mantle upwelling (e.g. volcanoes in Hainan island). This makes China a natural laboratory for studies of intraplate volcanism, and significant progress in understanding its nature and origins has been made over the past quarter century. Here, we introduce the first publication in English to provide a comprehensive survey of the state of knowledge and research highlights. Accordingly, we provide an overview of the dynamics, geology, geochemistry, volcanic histories and geophysical studies of 14 volcanic areas associated with the Holocene documented thus far. The special publication represents a benchmark reference on the topic but, as importantly, we hope that it will stimulate new, international collaborations aimed at deepening our understanding of the origins, history, hazards and associated risks of China's volcanoes.

Abstract The Changbaishan volcanic field located on the Gaima (Gaema, Gaiman) Plateau has witnessed plateau-forming eruptions along with the uplift of the Gaima Plateau. The Tianchi basaltic lava shield volcano was formed at the main peak of Changbaishan, with cone construction eruptions that formed a huge and steep trachytic composite cone on the gentle lava shield. At the peak of the Millennium Eruption (ME), the height of the eruption column reached 25 km and the bulk volume of tephra was about 120 km 3 . The ME eventually formed Tianchi caldera, after which several eruptions occurred, albeit of a much smaller scale. The magmas involved in the shield-forming eruptions are characterized by both alkalic series trachybasalt and basaltic trachyandesite and subalkalic tholeiite and basaltic andesite. In the cone-construction and ignimbrite-forming eruption stages, the magma is completely composed of alkalic series trachyte and comendite. The largest negative Eu anomalies observed in ME magmas indicate that plagioclase was strongly crystallized and differentiated.

Abstract The Longgang volcanic field (LVF) is a monogenetic volcanic field in China that erupted in the Quaternary, forming more than 100 scoria cones and maars in an area of over 1500 km 2 . The most recent eruption occurred c. 1500–1700 years ago. By summarizing the results of previous and recent research, this paper reviews the geological background, volcano distribution, eruption history, typical volcanoes and geochemical characteristics of the LVF. The volcanic activities in the LVF were structurally controlled by near-EW-, NW- and NE-trending faults. An analysis of typical volcanic edifices reveals that at least two eruptive episodes occurred in the Holocene, and most of the maars in the LVF have characteristics of multiple eruptive styles. It is concluded that the eruption types included effusive eruptions, magma explosive eruptions and phreatomagmatic eruptions. The results of geochemical studies of LVF eruptive products show that most of the rock is trachybasalt and that the magma rarely interacts with crustal rocks. Compared with the previous results for the neighbouring Changbaishan polygenetic volcanic field, the probable origins of their differences in volcanism are discussed.

Abstract The Cenozoic alkali basalts are widely exposed in the Jingpohu Volcanic Field, NE China. Previous volcanology and geochronology research has revealed that they were formed in three periods in the Miocene ( c. 29.23–13.59 Ma), Pleistocene ( c. 83.7 ka) and Holocene ( c. 5.5–5.2 ka BP). The Miocene and Pleistocene basalts consist of alkali olivine basalts, while the Holocene basalts are composed of alkali olivine basalts and leucite tephrites. Petrogenetic studies reveal that the primary magmas of the Miocene and Pleistocene alkali olivine basalts originated from partial melting of EM2-like garnet peridotites, and those of the Holocene alkali olivine basalts were derived from melting of EM1- and EM2-like garnet peridotites with higher garnet proportions. In contrast, the primary magmas of the Holocene leucite tephrites were derived from the melting of eclogites and peridotites. Combined with previous research, we suggest that melting of the mantle source region to generate Jingpohu alkali basalts was triggered by decarbonization and dehydration of the slabs stagnated in the mantle transition zone.

Abstract Combined geological, geochronological and geophysical data demonstrate that the evolution of the Wudalianchi volcanic field is closely linked to the most recent tectonic movements affecting the Songliao Basin, driven by dynamics associated with the subducting slab of the Pacific Plate. Intense volcanic activity has occurred in the Wudalianchi since the middle Pleistocene, including historical eruptions in 1720, 1721 and 1776. Together with radiometric age data, variations in the geomorphology of the volcanic cones reflect the effects of multiple eruptions at the same locations but during different periods. Geophysical data – including seismic images, tomography and magneto-telluric profiles – suggest the existence of subsurface low-resistivity bodies beneath some of the volcanoes, posing the potential that these could reactivate and erupt again in the future. To better characterize and elucidate the magmatic and volcanic processes operative in the Wudalianchi volcanic field over geological time, it is essential to conduct systematic geochemical and isotopic studies of many more samples of eruptive product, especially those from the older, single volcanoes.

Abstract The Halaha River–Chaoer River (HC) volcanic field in the Greater Hinggan Mountain Range (NE China) consists of at least 41 monogenetic basaltic volcanoes. Strombolian, violent Strombolian and phreatomagmatic eruptions, as well as the transitional eruptions, generated simple volcanic cones (single vent) and composite volcanic cones (multiple vents). The simple elongated cone is the most abundant geomorphology type. By analysing the elongated crater and coalescent aligned circular crater, cone breaching and depression, and aligned vents, we identified a number of magma-feeding fissures. The majority of these fissures strike NE–ENE. Accordingly, we infer that the regional stress field affected volcanism in the HC field. The lavas in this field are alkali basalts that are enriched in light rare earth elements (La/Yb N = 7.9–24.5). Their ocean island basalt-like rare earth element and spider-diagram patterns, high Nb/U ratios and high TiO 2 contents (>2 wt%) indicate that the basalts were derived from the asthenosphere mantle. Both the asthenosphere upwelling and the tectonic forces are the key controlling factors of the volcanism in the HC field.

Abstract During the late Cenozoic, the extensional tectonic setting in northeastern China caused large-scale block uplifts and depressions, and thus a large amount of magma erupted along structural fractures in the eastern Inner Mongolia, NE China. The Abaga, Beilike, Dalinor and Wulanhada (ABDW) volcanic rocks along the Daxing'anling–Taihangshan Gravity Lineament in the southern section of the Daxing'anling are characterized by their extensive distribution, numerous volcanic cones and various eruption types. Each volcanic group has distinctive volcanic landforms and geochemical characteristics. The geochronological data have revealed that the volcanism spanned Miocene to late Pleistocene. The ABDW volcanic rocks contain primary alkaline basalts and subordinate tholeiites. The trace element curve pattern is similar to that of ocean island basalt, but completely different from that of mid ocean ridge basalt, while the light rare earth elements are more enriched than the heavy rare earth elements. The geochemical features of the volcanic rocks and the entrained mantle xenoliths reveal the broad heterogeneities of the lithospheric mantle and varieties of the volcanic rock evolution in the south Daxing'anling. The Cenozoic volcanism in eastern Inner Mongolia, and even within the east Asian plate, is attributed to the westward subduction and rolling backward of the Pacific slab, as well as the trench retreat.

Abstract Cenozoic intraplate basalts are widespread above the Big Mantle Wedge (BMW) and its front in East Asia. While the mantle source lithology and redox-hydration state have been demonstrated to be crucial in the generation of basalts above the BMW, their nature and role in the basalts above the front of the BMW is poorly constrained. To address this, we report olivine compositions of the Quaternary Datong basalts. Datong basalts exhibit ocean island basalt-like trace-element compositions and depleted Sr–Nd isotopes with slightly enriched signatures (enriched mantle I, EMI) for tholeiitic basalts. Olivines of the Datong basalts show high Ni and Fe/Mn, and low Ca, Mn and Mn/Zn values, pointing to a pyroxenite source. Applying V and Ca partition coefficients between olivine and whole rock, respectively, the Datong basalts lie −0.44 to 0.64 log units above the fayalite–magnetite–quartz buffer for f O 2 , and contain 2.1–3.4 wt% H 2 O but highly variable H 2 O/Ce values (265–1498). Both f O 2 and H 2 O/Ce in the basalts vary with whole-rock and olivine compositions, indicating that the source was the main control. Thus, there is a heterogeneous redox–hydration state in the source, the EMI component being relatively reduced but extremely wet and recycled oceanic crust being relatively oxidized but dry. The extremely wet EMI component was probably derived from the mantle transition zone. In the light of our findings, we propose a model in which mantle upwelling carried the recycled oceanic crust and EMI component from the mantle transitional zone to shallow mantle, owing to the Pacific slab stagnating in the mantle transitional zone, to form pyroxenite, which subsequently melted to generate Datong basalts.

Abstract Ashikule volcanic field, developed in the western Kunlun mountain of north Tibet, is composed of approximately 10 volcanoes, and covers a total area of about 200 km 2 at an average altitude of approximately 5000 m, one of the highest volcanic fields in the world. In this study, we conducted detailed field investigations of the geological and geomorphological features of volcanic rocks and volcanic edifices in Ashikule basin, and compiled a large-scale geological map of the study area for the first time. We also collected a series of samples for petrochemistry analysis, as well as a high-precision 40 Ar/ 39 Ar geochronology study of selected lavas from Ashikule volcanic field. Finally, we refined the eruption history for the volcanic activity in the basin, which provides some new volcanological evidence for the study of the tectonic evolution of the Northern Tibetan Plateau.

Abstract In the West Kunlun Mountains, four volcanic fields (Kangxiwa, Dahongliutan, Qitaidaban and Quanshuigou) are distributed along the Dahongliutan fault, which is c. 180 km long. Based on field investigations, chronological measurements and geochemical analysis of some volcanic fields, the results of geological, geochemical and geophysical research in previous studies in the corresponding study areas are summarized. The volcanic activities in these areas were mainly effusive eruptions, explosive eruptions and phreatomagmatic eruptions. In this study, we discovered the Qitaiyanhu volcanic field for the first time and determined that the 14 C age of the lacustrine strata underlying the Qitaiyanhu lava flows is 13.110 ± 0.04 ka BP, indicating that there may still have been volcanic activities in the late Pleistocene and even the Holocene in the Dahongliutan fault area. Base surge deposits, which are the products of the interaction between magma and water, were found in the Kangxiwa volcanic field. The four shoshonitic rock fields of Kangxiwa, Dahongliutan, Qitaidaban and Quanshuigou are likely to be products of different evolution stages from the same magma source area. The magmatic origin of these volcanic fields may be related to the upwelling of the asthenosphere, triggered by the collision between the Indian and Tarim plates.

Abstract The Tengchong Volcanic Field (TVF) is one of the youngest volcanic areas in China, and is located in the southwestern part of Yunnan Province, China, adjacent to the collision zone between the Indian and Eurasian plates. This paper summarizes the results of previous research on the eruption history, petrochemistry and geodynamic background of the TVF and presents a detailed analysis of the available data. Eruptions took place from the Pliocene to the Holocene and were divided into five stages. The composition of the magma went through two cycles: the N 2 − Q P 1 − Q P 2 volcanic rocks went through the evolutionary process from basalt to dacite and the Q P 3 − Qh magma evolved from trachybasalt to trachyte. The evolution of magma is mainly related to the fractional crystallization of pyroxene and ilmenite. The mantle source area of the TVF volcanic rocks was caused by mixing between the mid-ocean ridge basalt-source mantle and the eastern Indian continental margin sediments to different degrees. Geophysical data also showed that the Indian plate has been subducted under the TVF area. There are also magma chambers in the crust within a depth of 25 km in the TVF that are replenished by mantle magma.

Abstract Northern Hainan Island and the Leizhou Peninsula volcanic fields (Leiqiong), the southernmost continental Cenozoic volcanism in China, cover an area of c. 8000 km 2 with 177 volcanoes recognized. Far from the subduction areas, volcanoes in this area provide an ideal opportunity to study the geodynamics of intraplate volcanoes. Here, we review the geochronological and geochemical data of the volcanic rocks in Leiqiong volcanic fields, and discuss their magma sources and geodynamics on the basis of the geological and geophysical observations. Chronological data (34.78–0.01 Ma) show that the volcanic activities started approximately in the Miocene and continued to the Quaternary. These basalts show typical geochemical characteristics of oceanic island basalts, and tomographic images reveal that a mantle plume is situated beneath Hainan Island and extends down to the core–mantle boundary. Thus, we suggest that the Hainan mantle plume is responsible for the Cenozoic volcanism in Leiqiong volcanic fields and this plume is sourced from the lower mantle with additions of dehydrated slab fragments. These mixed plume materials were brought to the upper mantle and produce solid pyroxenites, which are the major source of Leiqiong magmas. Although there is no documental record of volcanic eruptions in Leiqiong volcanic fields, the volcanic danger cannot be neglected.

Abstract Volcanic eruptions, despite causing large-scale disasters, also provide important natural resources and are an effective way to understand the Earth's internal structure and its evolution. Herein, a comprehensive review is presented on recent progress in geophysical imaging of the structure and origin of intraplate volcanoes in Mainland China. We primarily focus on the Changbaishan, Wudalianchi, Tengchong, Hainan and Ashikule volcanoes as they are currently active and hence pose potential hazards during future eruptions, particularly the Changbaishan volcano. The Changbaishan and Wudalianchi volcanoes are widely believed to be caused by the dehydration of the stagnant Pacific slab in the mantle transition zone along with wet upwelling in the big mantle wedge. There are a number of different views regarding the formation mechanism of the Tengchong volcano. Some studies suggest that a big mantle wedge structure is also present under eastern Tibet, and the Tengchong volcano has a deep origin, similar to volcanism in NE China. Others suggest that the Tengchong volcano is caused by a local and shallow process. Most tomographic studies suggest that the Hainan volcano is a hotspot, and its track has been located in SE China by combining seismological, geochemical and numerical modelling data. A gap exists between the subducted Indian Plate and the Tarim lithosphere beneath the Ashikule volcano, which provides a channel for asthenospheric upwelling to give rise to intraplate volcanism in the Ashikule basin. The interactions of lithospheres may produce shear heating of the subcontinental lithospheric mantle, which can generate localized melting. This process has been proposed as an explanation for the intraplate volcanism in Ashikule.

Abstract China has numerous active volcanoes, and more than 10 erupted in the Quaternary. Although a modern eruption event has not occurred in China, the potential risk from volcanic hazards should be noted. With the development of geodetic technologies including the Global Positioning System (GPS), levelling and interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR), volcanologists can now detect the present-day deformation state of China's active volcanoes. In this paper, we summarize the present-day deformation patterns, magma sources and magma plumbing systems of China's active volcanoes between 1970 and 2013. The results show that the most active volcano in China is the Changbaishan volcano; it showed significant inflation from 2002–03, with the deformation becoming gradually weaker after 2003, indicating that it had been experiencing a magma process during 2000–10. A point source at a depth of c. 10 km was responsible for the observed deformation. The Leiqiong volcanic field showed a trough pattern deformation during 2007–10, which was interpreted as a dyke intrusion model. Fluctuant deformation patterns were shown in the Tengchong volcanic field. The Longgang volcanic field had experienced a volcano-wide uplift during the 1970s and 1990s. Deformation was observed in the Tatun volcanic field from 2006–13, and two shallow sources account for the observed deformation. These volcanoes merit further monitoring given possible evidence of deformation. No obvious deformation related to volcanic activity was observed at the Ashikule volcanic field from 2003–11. The results provide a basic introduction to the deformation state of China's active volcanoes, and may be helpful for evaluating the activity levels of China's volcanoes and mitigating the risks of future volcanic hazards.

Abstract Following decades of geological surveys and studies, 14 active volcanic fields have been identified in China. Evidence for Holocene volcanism in several of these areas highlights the need to understand and monitor volcanic hazards in those regions. Six volcano observatories have thus been established in the past 40 years. This work reviews China's national capability and history of volcano monitoring, with emphasis on the Changbaishan–Tianchi Volcano Observatory and the Tengchong Volcano Observatory. The Changbaishan–Tianchi Volcano Observatory (CTVO) was constructed in 1996 and began monitoring in 1999, with limited recorded observations dating back to 1973. Currently, CTVO is the largest and most advanced observatories in China. The monitoring network of the CTVO incorporates 11 seismic and 15 GPS stations, two levelling routes and three gas geochemistry sampling points. The Changbaishan–Tianchi Volcano experienced unrest during 2002–05, evidenced in elevated levels of seismicity and ground deformation, as well as shifts in gas geochemistry. After 2006, the volcano returned to quiescence, with activities at background levels as recorded in 1973–2001. The monitoring network of Tengchong Volcano Observatory incorporates eight seismic stations, 20 GPS points, 95 levelling points and three gas geochemistry sampling points. The observations made since 1965 indicate significant seismicity, with more than 3000 events recorded in 2011, mostly related to regional tectonics. Tengchong is known for its widespread hot springs, with temperatures up to 105°C recorded at Dagunguo spring. The four other observatories are Longgang Volcano Observatory, Jingbohu Volcano Observatory, Wudalianchi Volcano Observatory and Qiongbei Volcano Observatory. They are equipped with seismic, geodetic and geochemical monitoring equipment. These areas saw only low levels of activity over the past several decades, but related fault systems are relatively active. In a relatively short time, China has gained considerable experience in observatory design and volcano monitoring and has trained up a sizeable task force, laying the foundation for sustained volcano monitoring at the national level. Future efforts must focus on maintaining and expanding observational capacity, as well as gaining better dynamic understanding to inform volcano hazard assessment.

Abstract By synthesizing relevant research findings from China and other countries, this paper discusses the distribution and eruption types of volcanoes in China. An analysis of the spreading characteristics of volcanic ash possibly caused by volcanic eruptions such as those from Changbaishan is presented, and the impact of volcanic ash on aviation flight safety, as well as several key methods of monitoring volcanic ash, are discussed. This paper also outlines the operational process of China's aviation industry in addressing volcanic ash and compares and analyses the handling of volcanic ash by civil aviation industries globally. Further, ways of dealing with volcanic ash are then suggested for China's aviation industry.

Abstract Volcanic eruptions, as major natural disasters, often cause considerable numbers of casualties and economic losses. Given the substantial potential hazards posed to society, volcanic eruptions have become a central concern for national public safety systems. This paper introduces the risk degrees and classification of activity of major active volcanoes in China, reviews early warning policies in the government response to volcanic eruptions, compares the early warning levels of China and the USA, and proposes an early warning theme adapted to the characteristics of volcanic activity in mainland China. The current volcanic warning system of China still has considerable room for improvement; therefore, improvements in monitoring volcanic activities and the antihazard capacity of volcanic eruption in the future are urgently needed.

Abstract In this study, we collect and translate observations and witness accounts suggestive of volcanic eruptions in ancient and modern China. The documents from the literature covered confirmed volcanic eruptions and suspected volcanic events. Recorded events concerning Tianchi ( c. 946 AD), Wudalianchi (1720, 1721) and Ashikule (1951) volcanoes relate to confirmed volcanic eruptions. Detailed records of Tianchi eruptions in historical documents span from 946 to 1903 AD. The real-time observations of the 1720–21 eruptions recorded by the government are presented. They describe a violent explosion and the development of lava flows at Laoheishan volcano. Evidence for events suggestive of volcanic activity are also presented for Dayingshan (1609, Tengchong), Man'anling (1883, Haikou), Chahayan (Heilongjiang), the South China Sea, Kui-shan Tao (late 1770s, Taiwan) and Penjia Islet (19 May 1916 and 29 June 1927, Taiwan). However, some supposed historical volcanic activities including Helanshan (Ningxia), Datong volcano, Rendagou (Sichuan) and Shizishan (Hunan) remain highly suspect according to their unclear positions and rough geological settings. These events may arise from the spontaneous combustion of coal. Records in Tianshan and Beiting Beishan (Xinjiang) may represent mud volcanoes. One case of an ancient Chinese Fengshui master interpreting geological processes from mythology is helpful when inspecting volcanology-related myths.