Abstract A Middle Pennsylvanian deltaic succession is exposed in the Fords Branch road cut located on US Highway 23, south of Pikeville, Kentucky, USA. The outcrop is 1.5 km long and 20 m in thickness and is oriented in an oblique strike orientation with respect to local paleoflow indicators and regional fluvio-deltaic drainage directed broadly to the west in a late Paleozoic Appalachian foreland basin. Sedimentological analysis of the outcrop and interpretation of a panoramic photo montage establishes that the succession in the road cut accumulated in three depositional episodes bounded by sequence stratigraphic surfaces. A basal complex of distributary- mouth bars, channels and levees is cut by and overlain by an incised-valley fill. A capping unit of bay-fill and distributary-mouth-bars sediments completes the exposed succession. Both the basal and capping depositional episodes are interpreted as lower-delta-plain settings. The incised valley is dominated by fluvial channel deposits and exhibits an upward increase in fluvial channel amalgamation. The focus of the study presented here is twofold: (1) the nature of delta-front settings and how best analogs might be chosen, and (2) the evolution of fluvial channels in the outcrop panel, the architecture of which suggests a changing balance of sedimentation rate versus avulsion frequency over time.

Abstract Ten depositional shoaling-upward cycles have been identified in the Aptian Shuaiba Formation of the United Arab Emirates (U.A.E.). A similar number of cycles have been recognized in the National Petroleum Reserve of Alaska (NPRA). Similarities of these cycles with the onlapping shelf geometries of the Neogene of the Bahamas suggest that the sequence geometries of Aptian strata of the NPRA and the U.A.E. are a response to high-frequency changes in eustatic sea-level position. Because the Aptian cycles of the NPRA match similarly dated, events in the U.A.E., it is suggested that where biostratigraphic data are poor the sedimentary section can be tentatively dated by relating the geometries of the shelf margin to the character of the coastal onlap curve and its coincident sea-level chart. Thus, a sea-level chart might be used at locations for which biostratigraphic data is sparse to determine and constrain preliminary depositional models for specific time intervals. With this in mind, two biostratigraphic models for dating the Shuaiba Formation and the Bab Member were tested against the sea-level curve of Haq et al. (1987) using a sedimentary simulation. The results were ambiguous because both biostratigraphic models could not be matched. Also in both cases, the simulation suggested that just prior to the deposition of the Bab Member the basin margin was uplifted and then subsided, causing a local relative sea-level fall followed by a rise, an event not found on the sea-level chart of Haq et al. (1987) . Additionally, the sedimentary simulation supports the position that the Aptian in the U.A.E. is bounded by erosional unconformity surfaces and contains higher-frequency cycles.

An interest in eustasy, after a long dormancy, has been revived by the development of seismic stratigraphy. Eustatic events signal their occurrence through the synchronous creation or loss of worldwide accommodation of the space available for sediment fill. Such events can only be recognized if this signal is large enough, and of worldwide extent. The signal is dependent on reliable stratigraphic markers spaced sufficiently closely in time to resolve the sea-level events. The amplitude cannot be determined. Evidence for eustatic events are widely separated synchronous sedimentary sequences and the unconformities which bound these features. To unequivocally interpret the stratigraphic record, one must be able to disentangle the effects of changing tectonics, eustasy, and sediment supply. In practice it is impossible to accomplish a complete calibration of seismic sequences, therefore it will always be a matter of interpretation. However, a wide range of geological characteristics place limits on tectonism and eustasy. This allows the application of a family of reasonable tectonic and eustatic models to explain basin history. In most instances, models within the family are similar enough to reproduce the stratigraphic record at the level of resolution produced by seismic sections. In many cases this is due to the fact that tectonics, eustasy, and sediment supply are linked, rather than being independent of each other. Hence, although absolute values of bathymetry and tectonics may never be determined with precision, models can generate complex basinal sequences with high fidelity using plausible inputs. Thus assumptions heaped on assumptions work. Examples used to demonstrate the above paradigm are from the Mesozoic and Tertiary of the Bahamas, the Gulf Coast of the United States, and the South Carolina Coast; and the Permian of the Midland basin of Texas.

Abstract This paper describes a computer program developed at the University of South Carolina to simulate the evolution of carbonate geometries and their facies responding to: (1) varying rates of accumulation; (2) eustatic sea-level variation; and (3) tectonic movement of the crust. The simulation creates two-dimensional plots of synchronous depositional sequences within sediment bodies. Rates of carbonate accumulation are modeled as a function of water depth and lateral position across the shelf. Carbonate accumulation includes in situ organic production and transport by hydrodynamic processes. Influx of clastic sediments is modeled to cause an exponential decrease in the rate of carbonate accumulation. Rates of carbonate accumulation can be further diminished with a user-defined depth-controlled wave-damping function. Eustatic variation is modeled by a fourth-order linear change in sea level over time (as described by Vail and others, 1977), with a higher order sinusoidal oscillation of sea level superimposed upon it. Reef margin and interior lagoonal facies on platforms and shelves are predicted. Modeling of these facies zones includes aggradation, progradation, backstepping, shoal development, and drowning. The Devonian Judy Creek reef complex of the western Canada Alberta basin was used both as an aid in constructing the carbonate simulation model and as an example on which to test the completed program. The Judy Creek model was constructed by the fourth co-author (J.C.W.) from the study of 100 cores and the correlation of a systematic grid of wireline log-core cross sections. Judy Creek consists of five overall shoaling-upward depositional cycles. Superimposed upon each cycle are several subcycles. Marine hardgrounds locally cap the first three cycles at the margin of the buildup. The top of the fourth cycle is a subaerial cemented surface. The top of the upper cycle is a widespread marine hardground. Subcycles consist of minor shoaling-upward sequences of lagoonal facies. The results of two versions of the carbonate model include: (1) a site-specific version of the Judy Creek area, which shows the facies location and movement within Judy Creek; and (2) a more generalized carbonate model. Both versions use similar inputs. The geometry and facies distributions of Judy Creek are simulated using a stairlike fourth-order eustatic sea-level curve (as described by Vail and others, 1977) and a low-amplitude higher order sea-level oscillation with a varying period in which sea-level fall is matched by tectonic subsidence. Maximum rates of accumulation average around 3.0 to 5.0 m/10 ka. The fourth-order sea-level variation consists of a rapid 3.5–5.0 m/10 ka rise followed by a gradual rise of 0.7–1.5 m/10 ka, followed by another rapid rise of the same magnitude, followed by another gradual rise. The higher order sea-level oscillation consists of 0.5 to 1.5-m amplitudes with periods ranging from 20 to 40 ka. Tectonic subsidence averages between 0.5 and 1.0 m/10 ka.

Abstract: Techniques that can be used to determine the relative magnitude of eustatic excursions include the measurement of: (a) the amount of sedimentary onlap onto the continental margins; (b) the thickness of marine sedimentary cycles and the elevation and distance between indicators of old strandlines; (c) the perturbations on individual thermo-tectonic subsidence curves and stacked crustal subsidence curves; (d) the variations in deep-ocean oxygen isotopes found in sediments; and (e) the size of variables, such as rates of tectonic movement, sediment accumulation, and eustatic changes, used in graphical and numerical simulations of basin fill that “invert” the problem. To date, a combination of some or all of these methods can be used to construct relative (tectono/eustatic) sea-level curves; however, these are not unique solutions to absolute eustatic variations. Each method assumes some behavior for two of the three underlying processes (tectonic movement of the basement, sedimentary accumulation, and eustasy), and then determines the third process relative to the assumed model behavior of the other two. The sense of this result is confirmed by mathematical models which suggest that only the sum of tectonic basement subsidence and sea-level variations can be obtained.

Abstract: Thermo-mechanical modeling demonstrates that tectonically induced vertical motions of the lithosphere may provide an explanation for third-order cycles in apparent sea level deduced from the seismic stratigraphic record of passive margins. The interaction of fluctuations in intraplate stresses and the deflection of the lithosphere caused by sedimentary loading can produce apparent sea-level changes of as much as 100m at the flanks of passive margins. In general, stress variations of a few hundred bars associated with local adjustment of stresses at passive margins suffice to explain a significant part of the stratigraphic record associated with short-term variations in sea level on the order of a few tens of meters. To induce short-term apparent sea-level fluctuations with magnitudes on the order of 50m or more, which occur less frequently in the record, changes in stress level in excess of one kbar are required. These larger fluctuations in apparent sea level could be related to major reorganizations of lithospheric stress fields due to rifting and fragmentation of plates, dynamic changes at convergent plate boundaries, or collision processes. A fluctuating horizontal stress field in the lithosphere can explain contemporaneous changes in apparent sea level in neighboring depositional environments. In principle, it implies the possibility of regional correlations in different basin settings. Specific short-term fluctuations in the curves of Vail and others, (1977; 1984) can be associated with particular plate tectonic reorganizations of lithospheric stress fields. The seismic stratigraphic record may provide a new source of information on paleo-stress fields which can be correlated with results of independent numerical modeling of intraplate stresses.

Abstract: The stable oxygen isotope record for the Cenozoic is characterized by a series of large third-order steps of +1 per mil superimposed on a long-term second-order trend. This second-order trend accounts for a δ 18 O change of nearly +4 per mil from the early Eocene into the Neogene. The second- and third-order changes in the δ 18 O signal are driven primarily by a combination of glacio-eustatic sea-level and ocean paleotemperature changes. These changes are global responses to evolving circulation and climate patterns. Timing of the δ 18 O events is in good agreement with the seismically defined changes in the coastal-onlap curve (Vail and others, 1977). Agreement in the timing of events supports a common mechanism, perhaps that glaciation is apparent throughout much of the record and certainly intensified beginning in the Neogene. Agreement is not good between the magnitudes of apparent changes in sea level using the EXXON onlap record and oceanic δ 18 O events. Consideration of the δ 18 O, ice volume, and sea-level relationships during the Pleistocene suggests that sinusoidal eustatics, i.e., the rise and fall of sea level being equal, is not a good assumption at fourth- and fifth-order sea-level events. Although interpretation of the δ 18 O record is not without its assumptions and limitations, it offers an independent geochemical check on seismically defined changes in stratal patterns.

Abstract: The objectives of this overview are to establish fundamental concepts of sequence stratigraphy and to define terminology critical for the communication of these concepts. Many of these concepts have already been presented in earlier articles on seismic stratigraphy (Vail and others, 1977). In the years following, driven by additional documentation and interaction with co-workers, our ideas have evolved beyond those presented earlier, making another presentation desirable. The following nine papers reflect current thinking about the concepts of sequence stratigraphy and their applications to outcrops, well logs, and seismic sections. Three papers (Jervey, Posamentier and Vail, and Posamentier and others) present conceptual models describing the relationships between stratal patterns and rates of eustatic change and subsidence. A fourth paper (Sarg) describes the application of sequence stratigraphy to the interpretation of carbonate rocks, documenting with outcrop, well-log, and seismic examples most aspects of the conceptual models. Greenlee and Moore relate regional sequence distribution, derived from seismic data, to a coastal-onlap curve. The ast four papers (Haq and others; Loutit and others; Baum and Vail; and Donovan and others) describe application of sequence-stratigraphic concepts to chronostratigraphy and biostratigraphy.

Abstract: In order to clarify the principles that govern the development of siliciclastic sequences and their bounding surfaces, a mathematical model of progradational basin filling was created for Atlantic-type continental margins. This paper discusses the model and its implications with respect to depositional facies, sandstone geometry, and seismic stratigraphic interpretation. Basin filling is modeled as the interaction of subsidence, change in sea level, and sediment influx. The simulations show that seismic-sequence boundaries are located, in time, near inflection points of eustatic sea-level fluctuation, where rates of fall or rise are maximized. Changes in the rate of accommodation development, both in time and space, are believed to play a dominant role in shaping the internal facies distribution, the geometry, and the nature of the bounding surfaces of depositional sequences. The pattern of coastal onlap and offshore condensed sections displayed by global-cycle charts are shown to develop in the context of smoothly fluctuating eustatic and relative sea level.

Abstract: Sequence-stratigraphic concepts are used to identify genetically related strata and their bounding regional unconformities, or their correlative conformities, in seismic, well-log, and outcrop data. Documentation and age dating of these features in marine outcrops in different parts of the world have led to a new generation of Mesozoic and Cenozoic sea-level cycle charts with greater event resolution than that obtainable from seismic data alone. The cycles of sea-level change, interpreted from the rock record, are tied to an integrated chronostratigraphy that combines state-of-the-art geochronologic, magnetostratigraphic and biostratigraphic data. In this article we discuss the reasoning behind integrated chronostratigraphy and list the sources of data used to establish this framework. Once this framework has been constructed, the depositional sequences from sections around the world, interpreted as having been formed in response to sea-level fluctuations, can be tied into the chronostratigraphy. Four cycle charts summarizing the chronostratigraphy, coastal-onlap patterns, and sea-level curves for the Cenozoic, Cretaceous, Jurassic, and Triassic are presented. A large-scale composite-cycle chart for the Mesozoic and Cenozoic is also included (in pocket). The relative magnitudes of sea-level falls, interpreted from sequence boundaries, are classified as major, medium, and minor, as are the condensed sections associated with the intervals of sediment starvation on the shelf and slope during the phase of maximum shelf flooding during each cycle. Generally, only the sequence boundaries produced by major and some medium-scale sea-level falls can be recognized at the level of seismic stratigraphic resolution; detailed well-log and/or outcrop studies are usually necessary to resolve the minor sequences.

Abstract A conceptual framework for understanding the effects of eustatic control on depositional stratal patterns is presented. Eustatic changes result in a succession of systems tracts that combine to form sequences deposited between eustatic-fall inflection points. Two types of sequences have been recognized: (1) a type 1 sequence, which is bounded at the base by a type 1 unconformity and at the top by either a type 1 or type 2 unconformity and has lowstand deposits at its base, and (2) a type 2 sequence, which is bounded at the base by a type 2 unconformity and at the top by either a type 1 or type 2 unconformity and has no lowstand deposits. Each sequence is composed of three systems tracts; the type 1 sequence is composed of lowstand, transgressive-, and highstand systems tracts, and the type 2 sequence is composed of shelf-margin, transgressive-, and highstand systems tracts. The type 1 sequence is associated with stream rejuvenation and incision at its base, whereas the type 2 sequence is not. Eustacy and subsidence combine to make the space available for sediment to fill. The results of this changing accommodation are the onlapping and offlapping depositional stratal patterns observed on basin margins. Locally, conditions of subsidence and/or uplift and sediment supply may overprint but usually will not mask the effects of global sea level. Any eustatic variation, however, (e.g., irregular eustatic rise or fall, asymmetric fall, slow or rapid rise or fall, and so on) will be globally effective. The significance of eustatic fall-and-rise inflection points is considered with regard to the occurrence of unconformities and condensed sections, respectively. Type 1 unconformities are related to rapid eustatic falls, and type 2 unconformities are related to slow eustatic falls.

Abstract Depositional sequences are composed of genetically related sediments bounded by unconformities or their correlative conformities and are related to cycles of eustatic change. The bounding unconformities are inferred to be related to eustatic-fall inflection points. They are either type 1 or type 2 unconformities, depending on whether sea-level fall was rapid (i.e., rate of eustatic fall exceeded subsidence rate at the depositional shoreline break) or slow (i.e., rate of eustatic fall was less than subsidence rate at the depositional shoreline break). Each sequence is composed of a succession of systems tracts. Each systems tract is composed of a linkage of contemporaneous depositional systems. Four systems tracts are recognized: lowstand, transgressive, highstand, and shelf margin. The lowstand systems tract is divided into two parts: lowstand fan followed by lowstand wedge, where the basin margin is characterized by a discrete physiographic shelf edge, or lower followed by upper wedge, where the basin margin is characterized by a ramp physiography.Two sequence types are recognized: a type 1 sequence composed of lowstand, transgressive-, and highstand systems tracts, and a type 2 sequence composed of shelf margin, transgressive-, and highstand systems tracts. Type 1 and type 2 unconformities are each characterized by a basinward shift of coastal onlap concomitant with a cessation of fluvial deposition. The style of subaerial erosion characterizing each unconformity is different. Type 1 unconformities are characterized by stream rejuvenation and incision, whereas type 2 unconformities typically are characterized by widespread erosion accompanying gradual denudation or degradation of the landscape. Stream rejuvenation and incision are not associated with this type of unconformity. On the slope and in the basin, type 1 unconformities typically are overlain by lowstand fan or lowstand wedge deposits, whereas type 2 unconformities are overlain by shelf margin systems tract deposits. Within incised valleys on the shelf, type 1 unconformities are overlain by either fluvial (lowstand wedge) or estuarine (transgressive) deposits. Type 2 unconformities typically are characterized by a change in parasequence stacking pattern from progradational to aggradational. Timing of fluvial deposition is also a function of eustatic change insofar as global sea level is the ultimate base level to which streams will adjust. The elevations of stream equilibrium profiles are affected by eustatic change, and, assuming constant sediment supply, streams will aggrade or degrade in response to eustatically induced shifts in these profiles. Fluvial deposition occurs at different times in type 1 and type 2 sequences and is characterized by different geometries within each type of sequence. In type 1 sequences, fluvial deposits occur as linear, incised-valley fill during the time of lowstand wedge and transgressive deposition. Fluvial deposits also may occur during highstand deposition as more widespread floodplain deposits within the late highstand systems tract. Fluvial deposits in type 2 sequences are usually limited to widespread floodplain deposits occurring within the late highstand systems tract.

Abstract: The major controls on changes in carbonate productivity, as well as platform or bank growth and the resultant facies distribution, are interpreted here to be short-term eustatic changes superimposed on longer term tectonic changes (i.e., relative changes in sea level). Carbonate platforms associated with sea-level highstands are characterized by relatively thick aggradational-to-progra-dational geometry. They are bounded below by the top of a transgressive unit and above by a sequence boundary. Two types of highstand platform, keep-up and catch-up, are differentiated here. (1) A keep-up carbonate highstand platform is interpreted to represent a relatively rapid rate of accumulation that is able to keep pace with periodic rises in relative sea level. A keep-up carbonate is characterized at the platform margin by grain-rich, mud-poor lithofacies and nonpervasive submarine cementation. keep-up platforms display a mounded/oblique stratal configuration at the platform/bank margin and in places on the platform. (2) A keep-up carbonate highstand platform is interpreted to represent a relatively slow rate of accumulation that is characterized by micrite-rich parasequences and pervasive early submarine cementation at the platform margin. A keep-up carbonate displays a sigmoid depositional profile at the platform/bank margin. At the formation of a type 1 sequence boundary, where the rate of eustatic fall is interpreted to be greater than subsidence at the platform/bank margin, two major processes occur: (1) local-to-regional slope front erosion and (2) subaerial exposure of the shelf and major seaward movement of the regional meteoric lens. At a large-scale type 1 sequence boundary , sea level may fall from 75 to 100 m or more and for an extended period of time. When this occurs, the meteoric lens becomes established over the shelf for a long time, and its influence extends well into the subsurface. If there is sufficient rainfall and a permeable section with mineralogically unstable grains, significant solution will occur over the shelf in the shallow portion of the underlying highstand carbonate platform. Precipitation of phreatic cements will occur deeper or downdip in the section. At a small-scale type 1 sequence boundary , where sea level falls less than about 100 m and for a short period of time, the meteoric lens becomes less well established. It remains in a shallow position on the shelf, causing less extensive solution. Mixing and hypersaline dolomitization may be important processes during the late highstand and continuing through the formation of either a large- or small-scale type 1 sequence boundary. At a type 2 sequence boundary , in which the rate of eustatic fall is interpreted to be less than the rate of subsidence at the platform/bank margin, the inner-platform peritidal and outer-platform shoal areas will be exposed. The dominant meteoric effect will be in the inner-platform areas. During sea-level lowstands, three types of carbonate deposits are recognized: (1) allochthonous material derived from erosion of the slope (i.e., debris sheets and allodapic carbonate sands); (2) autochthonous wedges deposited on the upper slope during type 1 sea-level lowstands; and (3) type 2 platform/bank margin wedges. In addition, given the appropriate climatic and hydrographic conditions (i.e., evaporation exceeds influx, and basin is restricted), evaporite lowstand wedges may occur associated with either type 1 or type 2 sequence boundaries. During evaporitic lowstands, hypersaline dolomitization, evaporite replacement, and solution may occur in associated carbonate highstand platforms. Siliciclastic lowstand deposition will occur in areas where an updip-source terrain is available.