ABSTRACT Barbados is actively rising in the latest phase of a long history of emergence that began as far back as 15 Ma. The current phase began at or before ca. 700 ka, is highly nonuniform, and at least locally, has been nonsteady. The uplift rate field in SE Barbados ranges between near-zero and 0.47 m/k.y. and is harmonic to active structures of NNW-SSE contraction. Emergence markers include limestone strata, coral, and shoreline angles, but we used only shoreline angles in calculations. We divided the capping limestone of windward Barbados into 10 units using physical criteria and dated them with over 40 230 Th ages as oxygen isotope stages 5a, 5e, late 7 and early 7, and old (older than 300 ka). The oldest unit is a relic of an earlier phase of emergence. Younger units, probably as old as 700 ka, downlap the eroded flank of the oldest unit and sublimestone foundation. Younger units comprise landward clastic facies deposited on abrasion platforms during eustatic highstand and seaward-coalescent fringe reef blankets deposited on preexisting slopes, mainly in transgression. Earlier models of ridged reefs of catch-up growth origin are not supported in windward Barbados. Shoreline angles, the updip tips of terrace floors and of younger limestone units, are isochronous markers of maximum highstand levels. Despite the lack of direct determination of their ages, shoreline angles provide the truest measures and highest values of emergence. Coral thought to indicate highstand growth gives moderately lower uplift rates due to depths of growth and collapse. Coral grown during transgression gives a marked error in emergence.

ABSTRACT The geomorphic evolution of southeastern windward Barbados is embodied in the development of a terraced seaward island slope on a tectonically rising scarp. The island slope is wholly erosional and a product of marine and subaerial processes. Modulation of the slope by terraces has occurred fundamentally by marine erosion at eustatic stillstands but includes morphologic additions by limestone deposition. The ongoing phase of morphologic development and island emergence began at or before ca. 700 ka. Emergence has proceeded at an increasing rate northwestward along the island’s southeastern coastline. The terraced island slope is markedly affected by post-terrace denudation. As many as eight marine terraces are preserved on the windward island slope below the planed surface of the Central Highlands, which is counted as terrace 1. Relics of an upper set of terraces are perched on the face of Second High Cliff, the ancient erosional margin of the oldest limestone capping Barbados. Second High Cliff developed by successive marine incisions over a probably long duration preceding oxygen isotope stage 9. A lower terrace set was excised in stages 9 through 5a in the siliciclastic island foundation or (and) in limestone cover of preceding terraces. Marine terrace floors extend seaward from an erosional backcliff and shoreline angle to a younger erosional cutoff. The most broadly preserved terrace floors indicate the following systematic succession of seaward profile elements: narrow upper ramp; broad upper flat; lower ramp; and on one, a lower flat. Carbonate cover is chiefly clastic on the upper ramp and flat, and chiefly reefal on the lower ramp. Most shoal-water reefal facies appear to be in fringe reef blankets. Terrace profile geometries are explained by a simple theory of wave abrasion in proportion to duration of sea level at a shoreline. At stillstands, the wave impact caused large shoreline recession and development of flats, whereas in transgression and regression, rapid sea-level change permitted only minor recession. Corresponding differences in cover facies are explained as functions of duration of breaking waves and seabed stability. Widespread post-terrace denudation is attributed to floods of upland provenance, local overland flow, and marine flooding. Riverine processes have produced channelization and a high degree of terrace preservation on the interfluves in the steeper, foundation-based northern windward region. This differs markedly from the more diffuse, shallow gullying and stripping of the limestone-covered shallow slopes of the southern region. An intensely stormy spell is suggested between stages 5e and 5c.

ABSTRACT This chapter presents geological documentation of Quaternary (and perhaps older) event histories of southeastern Barbados. The Barbados Limestone is herein formally defined. A time-stratigraphic division of the Barbados Limestone in southeastern Barbados and the properties of the stratigraphic units are presented. A major finding of this study is that the marine terraces originated wholly by marine erosion, not by reef construction, and evolved in stages over a long duration. The hydrology and thickness data of the Barbados Limestone are discussed, and hypotheses on causes of thickness variations are given. The study domain is divided into seven areas that contain a continuous flight of nine marine terraces preserved in various partial sequences. Discussions of these key seven areas in southeastern Barbados are supported by geologic maps at large scale and cross sections. Sections with VE > 1 display limestone stratigraphy and facies over relatively large lengths. Sections with VE = 1 show true structural configurations over short lengths. Detailed observations and radio isotopic dating of the limestone units permit differentiation and correlation among them.

Emergence and Evolution of Barbados is a three-part analysis of the Quaternary geologic and geomorphologic evolution of the island of Barbados in the southeastern Caribbean. “Geology of Southeastern Barbados” assembles and integrates detailed observations into a complex 700 k.y. history of marine sculpting and riverine flooding processes. “Marine Terrace Evolution of Windward Barbados” revises the Quaternary stratigraphy of the island, describes the tectonics of emergence, and demonstrates that uplift rates vary by location. “Active Emergence, Chronology, and Limestone Facies in Southeastern Windward Barbados” is the first comprehensive study to integrate marine erosion and deposition with tectonic uplift rates. Major findings of this work are that Barbados’ Central Highlands are an erosional remnant, and that terraces originated principally by marine erosion rather than by reef construction.

Abstract In recent years deep-water petroleum exploration has been booming. The Gulf of Mexico, some West African regions, and Brazil are leading this growing activity. Current deep-water plays focus on presalt, subsalt, stratigraphic pinch-out and deep-water folded belt targets. Comparisons of conjugated margins across the Atlantic are commonly used by explorationists to extend the prospectivity of known plays. However, what are deep-water plays? Are they only plays presently located in water depths more than 2000 m water depths or do they also include plays developed initially in relatively deep oceanic tectonic settings but are now underneath shallow water? For that matter, what about plays which developed in relatively shallow water but are now located in water depths greater than the continental slope. Present deep-water tectonic settings are mostly compressional toe-thrust regions of larger massive gravitational collapses related to (A) major deltas (B) allochthonous salt provinces, or (C) subduction-related accretionary wedges. Back-arc extensional basins in deep-water settings are underexplored, except for the Black Sea. Other plays presently in deep waters but from a geologic perspective initially formed in relatively shallow marine water and subsequently subsided are the pre-evaporitic plays of the Campos-Santos basins in Brazil and Angola offshore basins. Some elements of deep-water petroleum systems are still poorly understood. Although the presence of widespread deep-water source beds on oceanic crust is mostly known through DSDP/ODP wells, the role of tectonics and volcanic activity in the generation and maturation has yet to be adequately evaluated. Classical upwelling models intended to explain marine source beds may need to be refined. Note that most current deep-water-plays involve siliciclastics. There is no reason to preclude deep-water carbonate plays, the reservoirs of which are analogous to the outer platform, relatively deep-water pelagic carbonates producing in the Bay of Campeche in Mexico. Traditional seismic stratigraphy views unconformities as being caused by eustatic sea level changes. However, the origin of widespread deep-water unconformities needs to be further elucidated. An increasing number of deep crustal seismic surveys along West Africa show low-angle extensional detachments similar to those found on the Galicia margin of Spain and Portugal and comparable with tectonic styles of the Basin and Range Province of the western United States or else in the western Mediterranean ( e.g. , Western Alps or Betic Cordillera). Classical rifting models always need to be updated to be “on target” with new and often surprising seismic observations. In addition to the four principal types of deep-water plays currently being explored, additional plays should be found in deep-water carbonates, volcanic margins including hot spots or volcanic-lineaments, and subsided rifted systems; these may account for significant yet to be explored future plays in many parts of the “deep-water” world.

The most recent glacial-interglacial transition of the late Pleistocene ice age was accompanied by an increase in globally averaged ice-equivalent eustatic sea level of ∼120 m. This increase in sea level occurred over a period of ∼10,000 yr and was accompanied by highly significant regional inundations of the land by the sea as well as by significant regional emergence of the land from the sea in the initially ice-covered regions. These migrations of the coastline can be accurately predicted given only an assumed known history of the deglaciation of the continents. An especially interesting aspect of the suite of physical interactions involved in the global process of glacial isostatic adjustment concerns the influence of variations in the Earth's rotation on the local histories of relative sea level, which may be inferred on the basis of radiocarbon dating of suitable sea-level index points. The observed variability in sea level may be interpreted in terms of fundamentally important climatological and solid Earth geophysical properties of Earth System processes that govern system evolution.