ABSTRACT Over the past 150 years, Mount Diablo has served as a window into the evolving understanding of California geology. In the 1800s, geologists mapped this easily accessible peak located less than 100 km (62 miles) from the rapidly growing city of San Francisco and the geology departments at the University of California at Berkeley and Stanford University. Later, the mountain served as a focal point for investigating San Francisco Bay area tectonics. The structural interpretation of the up-thrusting mechanisms has evolved from a simple compressional system involving a few local faults to a more complex multifault and multiphase mountain-building theory. The stratigraphic interpretation and understanding have been advanced from a general description of the lithologies and fossils to a detailed description using sequence stratigraphy to define paleogeographic settings and depositional regimes.

Abstract A holistic understanding of the oceans as part of the Earth system is imperative for the future management and sustainable utilization of the ocean's natural resources. Increasing pressures on global resources have been accompanied by important advances in acoustic remote sensing technologies, allowing us to map the seabed in unprecedented detail. The MAREANO (Marine areal database for Norwegian waters) programme in Norway, one of the world's largest seabed mapping programmes, is designed to close the knowledge gaps with the use of the new technologies. To date, since the start in 2005, c. 1170 million NOK (Norwegian kroner), equivalent to c. US$115m have been allocated to this programme (2005–20). This paper outlines the development of MAREANO and other large marine mapping and science programme proposals in Norway, and considers which factors influenced whether they were realized or not. In conclusion, funding of MAREANO came as a result of the convergence of political needs, technical capacity and multi-institutional co-operation. We further give an overview of the new and improved seabed mapping technologies, and finally we discuss the Norwegian programmes in connection with similar major international ongoing programmes and new initiatives and take a look at possible advances in future seabed mapping.

Abstract EuroGeoSurveys (EGS) is a not-for-profit organization representing 37 national geological surveys and some regional surveys; it has an overall workforce of several thousand experts. EGS members provide official, interoperable, homogeneous, reliable, INSPIRE (infrastructure for spatial information in the European Community)-compliant public data on the subsurface for the benefit of society in terms of circular economy development, sustainable management of the subsurface resources, understanding and combatting climate change and the development of infrastructures and mitigation of geology-related natural hazards. The EGS is committed to establishing a geological service for Europe based on three pillars: (1) joint research with impact on EU policy level, which is being implemented through the GeoERA programme (Establishing the European Geological Surveys Research Area to deliver a Geological Service for Europe); (2) harmonizing and sharing pan-European geological data, through the European Geological Data Infrastructure (EGDI); and (3) sharing knowledge, capacities and infrastructure, through the pan-African support to the EGS-Organization of African Geological Surveys (OAGS) Partnership (PanAfGeo project). The EGS will continue to support the EU in its transition to a low-carbon, climate-neutral, resource-efficient, socially and environmentally resilient economy, in full compliance with the United Nations 2030 Agenda and the 17 Sustainable Development Goals.

Abstract Data-driven techniques including machine-learning (ML) algorithms with big data are re-activating and re-empowering research in traditional disciplines for solving new problems. For geoscientists, however, what matters is what we do with the data rather than the amount of it. While recent monitoring data will help risk and resource assessment, the long-earth record is fundamental for understanding processes. Thus, how big data technologies can facilitate geoscience research is a fundamental question for most organizations and geoscientists. A quick answer is that big data technology may fundamentally change the direction of geoscience research. In view of the challenges faced by governments and professional organizations in contributing to the transformation of Earth science in the big data era, the International Union of Geological Sciences has established a new initiative: the IUGS-recognized Big Science Program. This paper elaborates on the main opportunities and benefits of utilizing data-driven approaches in geosciences and the challenges in facilitating data-driven earth science transformation. The main benefits may include transformation from human learning alone to integration of human learning and AI, including ML, as well as from known questions seeking answers to formulating as-yet unknown questions with unknown answers. The key challenges may be associated with intelligent acquisition of massive, heterogeneous data and automated comprehensive data discovery for complex Earth problem solving.

Abstract Developing an advanced understanding of the Earth's fundamental processes and resources is essential to fulfil the United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. The International Geoscience Programme (IGCP) is the oldest and most successful example of scientific co-operation between a non-governmental organization, the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS), and an intergovernmental organization, UNESCO. During almost 50 years, this programme has been the gateway to successful scientific careers in pioneering research for thousands of IGCP project scientists. After almost 50 years of evaluating IGCP projects, the programme itself was evaluated through statistical analysis of the annual progress report during four periods: 1981–82, 1991–92, 2001–02 and 2011–12. Subsequently, these trends were compared to the trends of the last four years (2015–18). This study provided insight into trends and changes in the location of studies, participating countries, involvement of developing countries, gender equality, etc. To fully understand the added value of the IGCP brand identity and its seed funding, project leaders over a period of five years (2008–12) were asked to complete a survey about its work. Overall, both studies confirmed the value of the main aim of the IGCP: enabling and facilitating international collaboration between Earth scientists. Even though IGCP funding has been reduced, the IGCP brand still opens doors to new collaborators, new research and national funding agencies, often impacting the career of the involved researchers very positively.

Abstract Building on the present volume, which provides a snapshot of Geological Survey organizations (GSOs) from around the world in 2020, this epilogue provides a retrospective on past efforts to form an international consortium of GSOs. These efforts have had the noble aim of bringing GSOs together to address problems of global scale, but have not fully succeeded in building a sustainable organization. The paper summarizes international discussions held over the past three decades, provides some analysis and makes some suggestions on how a world association of GSOs may become useful, credible and workable.