This paper discusses the philosophy and major aspects of the geology training of the Apollo 15 , 16 , and 17 astronauts. This training concentrated on monthly field trips that were intended to develop the crew's observational skills in recognizing basic geologic structures and rocks and translating observations into an interpretative framework for local geologic evolution. Individual field trips became increasingly mission-like as their training matured. The crews worked with predetermined traverses and progressively added diverse operational aspects, such as proper usage of sampling tools, photo-documentation of pertinent features and rocks, simulation of space-suit mobility, and use of a roving vehicle. These exercises also provided simulations and practice for all major science support functions that would reside in Mission Control during the actual mission. This combined training of surface explorers and ground support will be indispensable in rendering future planetary surface operations as efficient and scientifically rewarding as Apollo .

Planning and implementation of astronaut observations and photography from lunar orbit during the Apollo program were based on two expectations: (1) orbiting astronauts would be able to add to our knowledge by describing lunar features from their unique vantage point, and, (2) as illustrated by the Gemini Earth-orbital missions, expertly obtained photographs would allow us to place detailed information from field exploration into a regional context. To achieve these goals, the astronauts had to be thoroughly familiar with concepts of lunar geology and intellectually prepared to note and document the unexpected. This required mission-specific training to add to their store of knowledge about the Moon. Because the activity was not part of the original program objectives, the training was conducted at the behest of the astronauts. The training time grew from occasional briefings on the early flights to extensive classroom sessions and flyover exercises for a formal “experiment” on the last three missions. This chapter summarizes the historical development and salient results of training the Moon-bound astronauts for these tasks. The astronaut-derived orbital observations and photographs increased our knowledge of the Moon beyond that possible from robotic sensors. Outstanding results include: realization of the limitations of photographic film to depict natural lunar surface colors; description and documentation of unknown features on the lunar farside; observation by Apollo 15 of dark-haloed craters that helped in the selection of the Apollo 17 landing site; and real-time confirmation that the “orange soil” discovered at the Apollo 17 site occurs elsewhere on the Moon.

The operational and logistical burden associated with putting a team of four scientists in a hostile environment was investigated as part of the Antarctic Search for Meteorites (ANSMET) Project during the austral summer of 2002–2003. Operational time data, when compared with similar data from the Apollo J-series missions, suggest that crew time available to science on future exploration missions will be no more than 20% of the total available surface time, due to the time demands associated with operating in a hostile environment. A comparison of time-distance statistics derived from ANSMET meteorite search traverses to similar traverses from Apollo was inconclusive—there was no clear pattern of similarity or dissimilarity between the two data sets. However, both data sets reinforce the benefits of robust rover capability over simple walking because rovers allow exploration of a wider area for a given period of time when compared to walking. Lastly, mass data for equipment and supplies for a four-person team on the Antarctic polar plateau suggest that supplying a Mars or lunar mission with the necessary supplies for nominal surface operations would take up a significant amount of the mass-to-orbit prior to initiating trans-Mars or lunar injection.