Abstract A holistic understanding of the oceans as part of the Earth system is imperative for the future management and sustainable utilization of the ocean's natural resources. Increasing pressures on global resources have been accompanied by important advances in acoustic remote sensing technologies, allowing us to map the seabed in unprecedented detail. The MAREANO (Marine areal database for Norwegian waters) programme in Norway, one of the world's largest seabed mapping programmes, is designed to close the knowledge gaps with the use of the new technologies. To date, since the start in 2005, c. 1170 million NOK (Norwegian kroner), equivalent to c. US$115m have been allocated to this programme (2005–20). This paper outlines the development of MAREANO and other large marine mapping and science programme proposals in Norway, and considers which factors influenced whether they were realized or not. In conclusion, funding of MAREANO came as a result of the convergence of political needs, technical capacity and multi-institutional co-operation. We further give an overview of the new and improved seabed mapping technologies, and finally we discuss the Norwegian programmes in connection with similar major international ongoing programmes and new initiatives and take a look at possible advances in future seabed mapping.

Abstract Geological Survey Ireland is a division of a government department and has typical origins as a geological survey founded to map the nation's natural resources. In recent years it has changed focus from more traditional geological mapping activities and methods to carrying out major projects of national societal value using, and developing, the latest technology. Programmes include one of the world's largest seabed surveys INFOMAR, a national groundwater mapping and protection programme, and modern geophysical and geochemical mapping under its Tellus programme. In addition the Survey has developed a successful geoscience research programme and a business cluster, Geoscience Ireland. By focusing on stakeholder engagement, effective communication of the value of geoscience and maintaining scientific rigour, geological surveys can be as relevant today as when they were founded.

Abstract EuroGeoSurveys (EGS) is a not-for-profit organization representing 37 national geological surveys and some regional surveys; it has an overall workforce of several thousand experts. EGS members provide official, interoperable, homogeneous, reliable, INSPIRE (infrastructure for spatial information in the European Community)-compliant public data on the subsurface for the benefit of society in terms of circular economy development, sustainable management of the subsurface resources, understanding and combatting climate change and the development of infrastructures and mitigation of geology-related natural hazards. The EGS is committed to establishing a geological service for Europe based on three pillars: (1) joint research with impact on EU policy level, which is being implemented through the GeoERA programme (Establishing the European Geological Surveys Research Area to deliver a Geological Service for Europe); (2) harmonizing and sharing pan-European geological data, through the European Geological Data Infrastructure (EGDI); and (3) sharing knowledge, capacities and infrastructure, through the pan-African support to the EGS-Organization of African Geological Surveys (OAGS) Partnership (PanAfGeo project). The EGS will continue to support the EU in its transition to a low-carbon, climate-neutral, resource-efficient, socially and environmentally resilient economy, in full compliance with the United Nations 2030 Agenda and the 17 Sustainable Development Goals.

Abstract The China Geological Survey (CGS) is affiliated to the Ministry of Natural Resources of the People's Republic of China, and is responsible for the unified deployment, organization and implementation of basic, public and strategic geological surveying and mineral exploration, providing basic geological data and information for economic and social development, and responding to public demands. Over the past 20 years, the CGS has been focusing on the national key development strategies and undertaking geological surveys to support the nation's resources and energy security, regional economic development, disaster prevention and mitigation, poverty alleviation, and other related undertakings. Specifically, the CGS has been playing a role in the following areas: assessment of mineral resources, energy resources, urban geology and geo-environment, as well as offering update and application of geodata for public and several other services.

Abstract Lithuania is a comparatively small country (65 000 km 2 ) with prevailing flat, glacial and post glacial relief composed of soft sediments without any rocky formations visible on the surface. There are no underground mines, but rather only pits for sand and gravel and few quarries of dolomite and limestone. Oil is produced from 15 oil fields in the west of the country. All potable water is taken from aquifers, with negligible if any concern. Most people, therefore, know very little about the geology of Lithuania and hardly realize what the Geological Survey is doing. Only in rare cases of hazardous events, like the Kaliningrad earthquake in 2004, or landslides devastating Gediminas Hill in 2016–17, or the largest karst sinkholes, is the name of the Geological Survey visible in the mass media. Nevertheless, the Geological Survey operates with several duties, private sector geological companies are generating business, and geosciences are on the agenda of scientific institutions. The aim of this study is to take a deeper look into the current factors that are determining the role of the Geological Survey of Lithuania at present, and to outline circumstances which could influence the role of the Survey in the future.

Abstract The Geological Survey of Finland (GTK) has over 130 years of history in mapping and studying mineral resources and their sustainable use. This has resulted in a globally top-ranking geodatabase and profound knowledge of Finnish geology and mineral resources, and has had a crucial impact on the continuously developing mining and exploration business in Finland. The basic mandate of the GTK has remained the same, but the strategic focus and mode of operation have changed considerably to meet new demands. Today, the GTK plays a vital role in providing geoscientific expertise and specialist services for a wide range of stakeholders and commercial clients in government, the business sector, academia and the wider community, in Finland and internationally. The GTK is actively building new ways to co-operate with universities, research organizations and companies to support future development and to expand its own expertise. This is further supported by the proactive use of cutting-edge technologies, such as the geomaterials research infrastructure, which allows studies from the nanoscale up to kilotons for diverse applications of mineral materials. The GTK plans to further strengthen its role as a key player in the minerals sector innovation ecosystems with a focus on primary minerals, the circular economy, digital solutions and water issues, which are expected to be essential factors for sustainable development through the 2020s and beyond. The GTK's main challenge is to ensure the continuous enhancement and renewal of expertise, to adapt and respond to future opportunities.

Abstract The Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland (GEUS) has a long history and over the years there has been a strong focus on traditional survey work such as geological mapping, research and advice to authorities on questions related to geological and natural resources. Many of the services provided are continuing in the years to come but modern, complex society engenders new questions, where decisions must be based on the best available knowledge, and geological surveys are key players to provide this knowledge to governments. In the new millennium, GEUS has entered into a number of long-term environmental monitoring programmes and several political sensitive projects. Key examples described include groundwater monitoring, assessment of the risk of pesticide leaching to the groundwater, disposal of low-radioactive waste, Carbon Capture and Storage the Continental Shelf Project of the Kingdom of Denmark, monitoring of the Greenland Inland Ice, and other activities on the ice shield. It is expected that GEUS will be involved in even more such studies in the coming years and that the modernization of classical studies will continue. The revised strategy of GEUS to be launched in 2020 will be focused on the institutions input to meet the United Nations sustainable goals.

Abstract Changes in society coupled with more ambitious environmental goals increase the need to make the benefits of geological knowledge visible. The Geological Survey of Sweden (SGU) is therefore evolving from its historical role as a ‘knowledge bank’ to become part of the integrated flow of public information. Three examples of the ongoing digital transformation, and how this will enable the SGU to contribute digital geological data for sustainable development, are: more automated data collection to monitor drinking water to be able to foresee water shortages; several new non-traditional marine projects, producing new information and recommendations for innovative measures to support Blue Growth, management and planning; an online virtual archive containing new data adding to our understanding of bedrock and mineral deposits, in turn leading to more efficient use of Sweden's mineral resources.

Abstract State Geological Surveys (SGSs) in the USA play vitally important roles, providing sound, unbiased scientific information to each state and the nation. Although implementation of each survey's scientific programme has evolved differently, these organizations are often the principal drivers of economic development, and they consult on policies for protecting land and water, mitigating geologic hazards and promoting sustainable development. The SGSs are represented by the American Association of State Geologists. For more than 110 years, they have partnered with the federal government on important geoscience issues concerning topographic and geologic mapping, water, mineral and energy resources, and geologic hazards. These collaborations continue to develop and expand across multiple specialties, providing critical support to the SGSs. The future role of SGSs will depend on legislative decisions, contributions to research and development and scientific advancement, and ability to leverage support from existing and new collaborations with academia and with federal, state, county and municipal agencies. The Illinois State Geological Survey, one of the largest SGSs, has continually pursued relationships across geoscience sectors to develop a strong multidisciplinary scientific programme. Going forward, all SGSs will be challenged to develop an effective data stewardship programme to communicate with a diverse clientele.

Abstract Geological surveys have long filled the role of providing Earth system science data and knowledge. These functions are increasingly complicated by accelerating environmental and societal change. Here we describe the US Geological Survey (USGS) response to these evolving conditions. Underpinning the USGS approach is the recognition that many of the issues facing the USA and the world involve interaction among geological, hydrological and biological processes, and how these interactions in turn affect society. Therefore, a goal of USGS planning is fostering interdisciplinary science. This focus is occurring in part through implementation of the recommendations of strategic planning teams. The USGS has also put in place groups building a broad information technology infrastructure as well as identifying and disseminating new Earth science research tools. In addition, the USGS has established an analysis and synthesis centre that brings together groups of scientists who address interdisciplinary Earth system science issues. The goal is for these building blocks to evolve towards a comprehensive USGS data and knowledge platform – EarthMAP (Earth Monitoring, Assessment, and Projection). We also recognize that the modern geological survey must be a member of a community of geological surveys contributing data to a global database of three-dimensional biogeophysical observations and interpretations.

Abstract GNS Science is New Zealand's geological survey with an applied earth science research focus yet without traditional government department accountabilities. As one of New Zealand's Crown Research Institutes established in 1992, GNS Science is owned by the New Zealand Government but has higher levels of self-determination, fiscal independence and impartiality than a government department. Securing competitive research funding and commissioned research is a business imperative and because of this the institute is able to respond and adapt to changing societal expectations. GNS Science can also influence outcomes based on its discretionary research investment. New Zealand's geological setting astride an active plate boundary attracts many international partners endeavouring to better understand geological processes in an accessible and logistically well-resourced natural laboratory. Partnerships like these substantially increase technological and financial resources and these enable diverse and often ambitious projects.

Abstract This paper provides a brief overview of the long history of the A.P. Karpinsky Geological Committee and Russian Geological Research Institute (VSEGEI) in the development of the Geological Survey and reinforcement of the mineral resource base of Russia. The status of state geological mapping in the country is highlighted. The issues, challenges and future prospects for state geological mapping in Russia are outlined.

Abstract The Coordinating Committee for Geoscience Programmes in East and SE Asia (CCOP) is an intergovernmental geoscience organization based in Bangkok, Thailand. CCOP currently comprises 15 member countries in East and SE Asia; it has provided venues for various geoscientific programmes and activities in the region for over 50 years. At its inception, CCOP conducted work in geological surveys, exploration and technological cooperation in the extraction of off-shore petroleum and mineral resources in the region. In response to the needs of member countries, CCOP projects have become increasingly diverse over time, especially in the areas of groundwater resources, geohazards, global climate change and urban geology. Facing the imminent fourth industrial revolution, CCOP compiles, manages and utilizes large amounts of data collected and accumulated by its member countries, and increasingly focusses on data sharing, education and capacity building. With the vision of becoming a premier intergovernmental Earth science organization in East and SE Asia, CCOP's mission is the application of Earth science to make significant contributions to the economic development and sustainable environmental management of its member countries, enhancing their quality of life. To fulfil this mission, CCOP has developed four strategic foci: (1) outreach; (2) cooperation and partnership; (3) knowledge enhancement and sharing; and (4) data and information. Organization and management of CCOP are governed by a steering committee formed of permanent representatives from the 15 member countries and guided by recommendations from an advisory group comprising representatives from cooperating countries and organizations. The steering committee considers and endorses projects and activities planned and proposed by the technical secretariat, which oversees the management of the organization, implementing all approved plans for the benefit of all member countries as well as cooperating countries and organizations. CCOP has played important roles in providing venues for activities and collaboration on various Earth science topics, including energy and mineral resources, groundwater, geohazards, global climate change, urban geology, geoscience big data, education and outreach. CCOP also publishes regular and special publications describing its activities. In the future, CCOP will encourage non-members in the region to join as official member countries, and will further strengthen its network by conducting joint Earth science research projects with cooperating countries and organizations. CCOP will also pursue sustainability in research by establishing a system to continually nurture new Earth scientists. Furthermore, CCOP will build a cooperative network with geoscience communities in other regions to promote a sustainable Earth.

Abstract Building on the present volume, which provides a snapshot of Geological Survey organizations (GSOs) from around the world in 2020, this epilogue provides a retrospective on past efforts to form an international consortium of GSOs. These efforts have had the noble aim of bringing GSOs together to address problems of global scale, but have not fully succeeded in building a sustainable organization. The paper summarizes international discussions held over the past three decades, provides some analysis and makes some suggestions on how a world association of GSOs may become useful, credible and workable.

Abstract This volume is a collection of papers authored by senior managers and heads of Geological Survey organizations (GSOs) from around the world in an attempt to provide a benchmark on how GSOs are responding to national and international needs in a rapidly changing world. GSOs face an uncertain future and need to understand global trends. Whereas population trends are somewhat predictable, societal responses to change are much less so and technological change is fundamentally disruptive and chaotic. As countries adopt sustainable development principles and the public becomes increasingly (but not necessarily reliably) informed about environmental issues using social media, the integration of resource development and environmental stewardship becomes increasingly important. GSOs will continue to provide key information about Earth systems, natural hazards and climate change in this context. This introduction comprises a short review of the global trends affecting GSOs, a snapshot of the state of GSOs, examples of how GSOs are adapting their activities to the modern world, including the growing use of big data, and an examination of international collaboration between GSOs. The time is perhaps ripe to reinforce international collaborations through a global network of GSOs. To achieve this will require leadership and a focus on the big picture of global sustainability.