ABSTRACT Continuous sediment, pollen, and charcoal records were developed from an 8.46-m-long sediment core taken from Hermit Lake in the northern Sangre de Cristo mountain range of Colorado. Presently, vegetation around the lake is upper subalpine forest, consisting of Picea engelmannii (Englemann spruce) with some Abies lasiocarpa (subalpine fir), and the lake lies >200 m below present tree line. We used several pollen ratios to reconstruct the relative position of the tree line and the occurrence of clay layers to infer landscape instability through time. Deglaciation of the Hermit Lake drainage began during the Bølling-Allerød interval. Between ca. 13.5 and 12.4 ka, high Artemisia (sagebrush) pollen abundance, low Picea / Pinus (spruce/pine; S/P) ratios, and sporadic occurrence of Picea macrofossils indicate alpine tundra-spruce conditions. Though the pollen record shows no transition to the Younger Dryas, the subsequent absence of Picea needle fragments suggests a lowering of tree line. By ca. 10.2 ka, a subalpine forest of Picea and Pinus grew there. Based on pollen ratios, tree line was higher than today from ca. 9.0 to ca. 3.8 ka, after which the tree line began to lower to its present elevation. Maximum expansion of the Picea-Abies subalpine forest, determined from both pollen and macrofossils, was coincident with the highest influx of charcoal particles and maximum deposition of postfire erosion (clay layers) into the lake. The period ca. 7.8–6.2 ka was the driest period, as shown by aquatic indicators, but pollen ratios suggest that ca. 6.2–3.8 ka was the warmest period of the Holocene, accompanied by high rates of burning, and consequently elevated erosion of clays into the lake. During the late Holocene, declining S/P ratios are interpreted as declining alpine tree line, while decreases in both Picea to Artemisia (S/Art) and Pinus to Artemisia (P/Art) ratios suggest climate cooling. Pollen evidence suggests expansion of the lower-elevation Colorado piñon ( Pinus edulis ), which has been documented as part of a widespread phenomenon noted by other studies.

We have developed a conceptual model for the Tesuque aquifer system in the southeastern Española Basin near Santa Fe, New Mexico, based on measurements of chemical, isotopic, and thermal properties of groundwater from 120 wells. This study concentrates on a single groundwater-flow unit (GFU) of the Tesuque aquifer associated with the Santa Fe River drainage, where groundwater flows east to west across north-trending rift structures. We examine links between groundwater flow, temperature, water chemistry, and major fault structures. Hydrologic and hydrochemical processes are assessed through spatial mapping of temperature and chemical composition (Ca:Na ratios, F, As, B, Li, δ 2 H, and δ 18 O), Piper and bivariate plots, Spearman rank-order correlations, and flow-line modeling of mineral saturation (PHREEQC software). Results help delineate recharge and discharge areas and demonstrate spatial correspondence of major rift structures with changes in chemical and thermal data. Thermal wells with anomalous discharge temperatures and regional thermal gradients exceeding 40 °C/km align with structural boundaries of the Cañada Ancha graben and Caja del Rio horst. Mg-Li geothermometry characterizes temperatures associated with deep circulating groundwater. Important features of the conceptual model are (1) a forced convection system in the Tesuque aquifer associated with the Caja del Rio horst drives upward flow and discharge of warm, Na-rich groundwater in the western half of the Cañada Ancha graben; and (2) major horst-graben structures concentrate upward flow of deep, NaSO 4 thermal waters from underlying bedrock. Both features likely contribute to chemical anomalies and thermal disturbances in the shallow Tesuque aquifer.

Interpretation of gravity, aeromagnetic, and magnetotelluric (MT) data reveals patterns of rifting, rift-sediment thicknesses, distribution of pre-rift volcanic and sedimentary rocks, and distribution of syn-rift volcanic rocks in the central San Luis Basin, one of the northernmost major basins that make up the Rio Grande rift. Rift-sediment thicknesses for the central San Luis Basin determined from a three-dimensional gravity inversion indicate that syn-rift Santa Fe Group sediments have a maximum thickness of ~2 km in the Sanchez graben near the eastern margin of the basin along the central Sangre de Cristo fault zone, and reach nearly 1 km within the Monte Vista graben near the western basin margin along the San Juan Mountains. In between, Santa Fe Group thickness is negligible under the San Luis Hills and estimated to reach ~1.1 km under the Costilla Plains (although no independent thickness constraints exist, and a range of thicknesses of 600 m to 2 km is geophysically reasonable). From combined geophysical and geologic considerations, pre-rift, dominantly sedimentary rocks appear to increase in thickness from none in the Sanchez graben on the east to perhaps 800 m under the San Luis Hills on the west. The pre-rift rocks are most likely early Tertiary in age, but the presence of Mesozoic and Paleozoic sedimentary rocks cannot be ruled out. Geophysical data provide new evidence that an isolated exposure of Proterozoic rocks on San Pedro Mesa is rooted in the Precambrian basement. This narrow, north-south–trending basement high has ~2 km of positive relief with respect to the base of the Sanchez graben, and separates the graben from the structural depression beneath the Costilla Plains. A structural high composed of pre-rift rocks, long inferred to extend from under the San Luis Hills to the Taos Plateau, is confirmed and found to be denser than previously believed, with little or no overlying Santa Fe Group sediments. Major faults in the study area are delineated by geophysical data and models; these faults include significant vertical offsets (≥1 km) of Precambrian rocks along the central and southern zones of the Sangre de Cristo fault system. Other faults with similarly large offsets of the Santa Fe Group include a fault bounding the western margin of San Pedro Mesa, and other faults that bound the Monte Vista graben in an area previously assumed to be a simple hinge zone at the western edge of the San Luis Basin. A major north-south–trending structure with expression in gravity and MT data occurs at the boundary between the Costilla Plains and the San Luis Hills structural high. Although it has been interpreted as a down-to-the-east normal fault or fault zone, our modeling suggests that it also is likely related to pre-rift tectonics. Aeromagnetic anomalies over much of the area are interpreted to mainly reflect variations of remanent magnetic polarity and burial depth of the 5.3–3.7 Ma Servilleta Basalt of the Taos Plateau volcanic field. Magnetic-source depth estimates are interpreted to indicate patterns of subsidence following eruption of the basalt, with maximum subsidence in the Sanchez graben.

We describe the structure of the eastern Española Basin and use stratigraphic and stratal attitude data to interpret its tectonic development. This area consists of a west-dipping half graben in the northern Rio Grande rift that includes several intrabasinal grabens, faults, and folds. The Embudo–Santa Clara–Pajarito fault system, a collection of northeast- and north-striking faults in the center of the Española Basin, defines the western boundary of the half graben and was active throughout rifting. Throw rates near the middle of the fault system (i.e., the Santa Clara and north Pajarito faults) and associated hanging-wall tilt rates progressively increased during the middle Miocene. East of Española, hanging-wall tilt rates decreased after 10–12 Ma, coinciding with increased throw rates on the Cañada del Almagre fault. This fault may have temporarily shunted slip from the north Pajarito fault during ca. 8–11 Ma, resulting in lower strain rates on the Santa Clara fault. East of the Embudo–Santa Clara–Pajarito fault system, deformation of the southern Barrancos monocline and the Cañada Ancha graben peaked during the early–middle Miocene and effectively ceased by the late Pliocene. The north-striking Gabeldon faulted monocline lies at the base of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, where stratal dip relations indicate late Oligocene and Miocene tilting. Shifting of strain toward the Embudo–Santa Clara–Pajarito fault system culminated during the late Pliocene–Quaternary. Collectively, our data suggest that extensional tectonism in the eastern Española Basin increased in the early Miocene and probably peaked between 14–15 Ma and 9–10 Ma, preceding and partly accompanying major volcanism, and decreased in the Plio-Pleistocene.

Abstract A synthesis of low-temperature thermochronologic results throughout the Laramide foreland illustrates that samples from wellbores in Laramide basins record either (1) detrital Laramide or older cooling ages in the upper ~1 km (0.62 mi) of the wellbore, with younger ages at greater depths as temperatures increase; or (2) Neogene cooling ages. Surface samples from Laramide ranges typically record either Laramide or older cooling ages. It is apparent that for any particular area the complexity of the cooling history, and hence the tectonic history interpreted from the cooling history, increases as the number of studies or the area covered by a study increases. Most Laramide ranges probably experienced a complex tectono-thermal evolution. Deriving a regional timing sequence for the evolution of the Laramide basins and ranges is still elusive, although a compilation of low-temperature thermochronology data from ranges in the Laramide foreland suggests a younging of the ranges to the south and southwest. Studies of subsurface samples from Laramide basins have, in some cases, been integrated with and used to constrain results from basin burial-history modeling. Current exploration for unconventional shale-oil or shale-gas plays in the Rocky Mountains has renewed interest in thermal and burial history modeling as an aid in evaluating thermal maturity and understanding petroleum systems.This paper suggests that low-temperature thermochronometers are underutilized tools that can provide additional constraints to burial-history modeling and source rock evaluation in the Rocky Mountain region.