Abstract The two Early Acheulian sites of Bori and Morgaon in the Deccan Volcanic Province in Upland Maharashtra, India bear some association with an acidic tephra deposit in a fluvial context. Acheulian artefacts in association with tephra were first reported in India from the Bori site and numerous efforts to date this tephra have since been undertaken. These efforts employed various dating methods and produced a total of 10 absolute dates ranging from the Early Pleistocene with a maximum age of 1.4 Ma to the Late Pleistocene with a minimum age of 23.4 ± 2.4 ka. However, field observations and a typo-technological analysis strongly suggests that these Early Acheulian artefacts occur in a semi-primary context, and thus contest the Late Pleistocene age of the tephra and redeposition of the artefacts as argued by some scholars. At Morgaon, the Acheulian artefacts have been recovered from basal fluvial sediments that contain clasts of laterite. These sediments are capped by two low-energy clay facies that are separated by high-energy gravel lenses. The tephra at Morgaon has been reported from the upper clay facies and has produced absolute dates ranging from the Matuyama period (>0.78 Ma) to the Late Pleistocene (41 ka). After more than two decades of investigation at these sites, the number of absolute dates procured through methods such as electron spin resonance (ESR), 39 Ar– 40 Ar, U–Th and palaeomagnetism, although encouraging, are inconclusive. This paper is therefore an attempt to gauge the nature of the palaeolandscapes that most probably existed during the Early Quaternary. This will be achieved by studying local geomorphological variability between the two sites, along with a preliminary analysis of lithic morphology.

Abstract Landscape adaptation in central India is quite exceptional, as more than 300 Lower Palaeolithic occurrences have been reported in different contexts. The present work deals with these assemblages and associated raw material sources in the central Narmada Valley. The central Narmada Valley is rich in various rock types that were used as raw material by various hominin populations. The Narmada River divides the region into northern and southern parts. In the north, there are mainly the Vindhyan Supergroup and Deccan Trap, whereas, in the south, there are primarily the Gondwana Supergroup, the Deccan Traps and the Mahakoshal Group. Along the river, there are exposures of the Vindhyan Supergroup and thick deposits of Quaternary alluvium. The main raw material types in the north of Narmada are quartzite and sandstone (Vindhyan Supergroup), whereas, in the south of Narmada, the main raw materials are quartzite (Gondwana Supergroup) and chert (Deccan Trap). Acheulean sites are mostly found along the foothills of Vindhyan, as well as along the banks of the Narmada River and its tributaries. In this chapter, the author has tried to link these raw material sources with the occurrences of Palaeolithic sites in order to have a better understanding of past hominin land-use patterns and ecological adaptations.

Abstract Kibbanahalli is an important Lower Palaeolithic site-complex in southern Karnataka, a state in the southern region of Peninsular India. This region is crucial as it is somewhat centrally located between areas to the north, east and south, where decades of systematic Palaeolithic research has led to the establishment of firm cultural stratigraphy(ies) and even, in some cases, of chronology(ies). However, in stark contrast to these regions, southern Karnataka is often ignored in prehistoric research. Over 90 years of (intermittent) investigations at this site-complex have laid the foundations of our understanding of the Palaeolithic occupation of this region. It is of utmost importance to continue Palaeolithic research in this area as it is one of the fastest-growing industrializing and urbanizing zones of the world, with large population centres such as Bangalore (Bengaluru), Mysore (Mysuru) and others located here. Documenting the rich Palaeolithic heritage in this region before its eventual surrender to the forces of ‘development’ is thus a priority. Further, it is also necessary, if possible, to qualify and quantify the impact of these developmental processes on the visibility and preservation of the archaeological record, in general, and the Palaeolithic record, in particular, which might serve as a model for future research in similar regions. These recent investigations have led to the identification of many new Palaeolithic localities, and a secure identification of the technological attribution of their lithic assemblages. The presence of a uniform stratigraphic association of the archaeological horizon and similarities in their lithic collections has led to the reclassification of the many localities at Kibbanahalli and its vicinity into a site-complex. This paper reports on a series of field observations and remotely sensed data collected to understand the distribution pattern of the various Palaeolithic localities of this site-complex. Results of this study highlight the critical role played by modern-day land-use patterns on the observed distribution of the archaeological record, as well as its visibility. This observation challenges previous interpretations regarding the settlement patterns and strategies suggested for the Palaeolithic occupation of this region. Further, this study draws attention to the need and necessity to understand the role of various site formation processes, especially modern-day land-use activities, on the observed and observable patterns in the archaeological record, as well as the visibility, or lack thereof, of the archaeological record.

Abstract The Lower Son Valley is generally overlooked despite a lengthy history of archaeological and geological studies in the adjacent Middle Son Valley. However, recent explorations in the former have yielded a large number of Palaeolithic and microlithic sites. This paper provides an initial report on Doma, a newly discovered site with the first-known stratified bifaces in this part of the valley. The site preserves multi-period technologies in different contexts, including terminal Acheulean/early Middle Palaeolithic and Upper Palaeolithic (all tentatively assigned based on respective typologies). Preliminary field observations are presented on the sedimentary sequence, archaeological surveys, topographical mapping, raw material and the overall palaeoanthropological assessment of Doma. The raw material utilized at the site is primarily porcellanite, derived from exposures of the Semri Group of the Vindhyan Supergroup. The oldest Palaeolithic evidence at Doma broadly resembles Late Acheulean sites dated to c. 140–120 ka in the nearby Middle Son Valley. The Pleistocene sediments here also yielded mammalian fossil specimens, such as long bone fragments, dental specimens and antler fragments. Along with the lithics and fossils, the site also preserves datable sedimentary sequences with calcrete, all key proxies in developing a testable model of technological transitions within a palaeoenvironmental framework, in the future.

Abstract Archaeological and geological remains associated with the Youngest Toba Tuff (YTT) deposits in India are seen as significant proxies for reconstructing (1) initial modern human colonization of India and (2) possible climatic impacts of the Toba super-eruption of 74 ka on the Indian climate and hominin behaviour. In order to gain further insights into the environmental impacts and behavioural adaptations of human populations in India before and after the Toba eruption, we investigated archaeological horizons associated with the Toba ash beds along the Gundlakamma basin in Prakasam District, Andhra Pradesh, India. Here, lithic artefacts were identified below and above the YTT deposits. The YTT deposits in the Gundlakamma River basin have a maximum thickness of 50 cm, comparatively thinner than those at the better investigated valleys of the adjacent Jurreru and Sagileru in Andhra Pradesh and the Son, Madhya Pradesh, India. Our surveys indicate that the Palaeolithic assemblages associated with YTT deposits from the Gundlakamma River basin can provide significant insights into the issues and debates surrounding the Toba archaeology.

Abstract The Spiti Valley is located in the Trans-Himalayan terrain of India, from where non-geometrical microliths have been discovered. While the Siwalik Hills have been subjected to extensive prehistoric surveys, this is the first evidence of lithic tools discovered in the Trans-Himalayan region of Himachal Pradesh, India. Due to its topographical and intense climatic features, the Trans-Himalayan region has generally been regarded as a barrier since prehistoric times. However, Dzamathang cannot be considered as an isolated site in the Trans-Himalayas. In fact, in the adjoining areas of Ladakh, Tibet and Nepal, similar lithics have been reported from several sites and been assigned to the Middle and Upper Palaeolithic. The discovery of this site suggests that the Trans-Himalayan zone may have acted as a possible route rather than a barrier during human migration. Large numbers of lithics have been recovered in the Dzamathang area of the Spiti Valley. Based on the collection of the artefacts from the surface, this paper tries to understand the geological and geographical setting of the area, particularly concerning prehistoric settlements in the Trans-Himalayas. This assemblage consists of assorted artefacts, which include a unifacial chopper, microlithic cores, flakes, blades, bladelets, burin and a large amount of debitage fragments. The majority of artefacts are on quartzite or quartzarenite. Future surveys will be targeted at recovering primary context sites for excavations and absolute dating.

Abstract This paper is based on the field investigations conducted in the West Garo Hills of northeastern India. The work presents a brief report on the Neolithic manufacturing sites of the West Garo Hills. It addresses the various issues of lithic sequence, typological classifications, lithic technology, settlement pattern and site distribution pattern of the known sites and newly discovered sites in the West Garo Hills. Large clusters of Neolithic manufacturing sites have been located on the hilltops and hillslopes close to present-day rivers, streams, natural springs, water channels and modern Garo community habitats. Dolerite raw materials were mostly preferred for fashioning the artefacts, and manufacturing units are found close to the dyke basalt rock sources. Findings of habitation deposits or pottery are very sparse; however, evidence of plant and animal domestication, burial, bone tools, and metal use pose new hypotheses on their use owing to poor preservation. The Palaeolithic evidence and the region's transition to early farming cultures remain vague.

Abstract The formal beginning of geoarchaeology in India can be traced back to 1863 when the first palaeolith was documented and collected by Robert Bruce Foote in Tamil Nadu and later described in a detailed geological context. Today, various geological tools such as geospatial analytical tools are available to provide extra mileage to geoarchaeological investigations. They supplement field evidence and enable researchers to display, manipulate, and model geological data and the associated archaeological evidence. The present paper attempts to summarize the current status of understanding of the Quaternary geoarchaeology of the Tapi River basin in west-central India. The aspects considered include geomorphology, landform evolution, morphometric parameters, relationships between climate and basin evolution and Palaeolithic and Mesolithic evidence. This present study uses Landsat imagery, locational data, Survey of India topographic sheets and Shuttle Radar Topography Mission data in ArcGIS software. The study is the first comprehensive attempt to summarize the issue of prehistoric human adaptations (dominated mainly by Late Pleistocene evidence) through changing environments, with an assumption that the two occurred in synchronization. Another assumption is that the reported lithic and fossil sites and the surrounding areas have preserved signatures of original landforms and sedimentary contexts. Through these perspectives and visual integration of topography, drainage networks and Landsat image parameters in a Geographic Information System platform, along with other variable field inputs, a testable hypothetical model of the Quaternary evolution of Central Tapi valley is proposed. Additionally, an accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) date of 47 145 cal BP for a newly discovered ostrich eggshell fragment from Sakegaon near Bhusawal is presented and its palaeoanthropological implications are discussed. Altogether, our observations from the study area, such as an expansion of land use from the Acheulean onwards, signatures of arid phases and the oldest reported ostrich eggshell, warrant further detailed multidisciplinary research. An in-depth understanding of the first-to-last occurrences of ostriches in the region and comprehensive picture of their pan-South Asian distribution in general will help address the issue of prehistoric human adaptations through changing environments.

Abstract Whether scavenging or hunting, the consumption of large mammals is very prominent in the history of humankind. During the Lower Palaeolithic period, the abundance of large cutting tools found indicates increased meat consumption. Evidence has demonstrated this at various African and European sites where direct links between lithic and faunal assemblages have been made, for instance cut-marked bones and use-wear studies. On the Indian Subcontinent, there is a lack of direct evidence on animal remains in archaeological contexts (with one exception); however, there are numerous sites where animal fossils and lithic artefacts occur in shared contextual associations. The present paper is concerned with the relationships between the lithic and faunal assemblages in archaeological contexts, particularly the occurrence of bifaces and large mammalian fossils in Lower Palaeolithic assemblages with specific reference to the central Indian zone. Without the confirmation of anthropogenic signatures on Pleistocene faunal remains, it is not easy to assess whether a particular assemblage has the contemporaneous deposition of the two datasets or not. Here, we present a review of archaeological and faunal records in the central Narmada Valley and explore the possible associative evidence of human–animal interactions.

Abstract The Sonar River Valley is centrally located in Madhya Pradesh, flanked by rich Palaeolithic and fossiliferous localities in the Son and Narmada valleys and has historically been overlooked in favour of the latter rivers, which tend to preserve well-stratified Quaternary formations along varying portions of their length. Here an attempt is made to look at the Sonar Basin through a broader lens, examining the various landforms found in the district of Damoh through which the Sonar flows before joining the Ken. The objective of this paper is threefold: to bring together the geomorphology of the area both in association with and as a result of fluvial action but also as a product of other geomorphic processes; to understand the consequences these processes have for the visibility of the prehistoric archaeological record within the region; and to look at this geoarchaeological relationship in the wider context of some of the major river basins in Madhya Pradesh, notably the Son and Narmada. Secondary sources on geology and geoarchaeology have been integrated with preliminary fieldwork in Districts Damoh and Narsinghpur, and to a smaller extent in Sagar, Chhatarpur and Panna. This work demonstrates the complexity of the South Asian Palaeolithic record that stretches beyond fluvial contexts, in turn helping to spatially expand our understanding of hominin behaviour beyond narrow riverine corridors.

Abstract Rivers and river-borne deposits have always been a major attraction for hominins as an important source of sustenance and settlements. Hence, fluvial deposits have long been an important source of evidence for early human occupation throughout the Old World. Apart from being an important palaeoclimatic marker, fluvial sequences have provided archaeologists with frameworks for correlation, along with Palaeolithic markers discovered within them. Moreover, given the influx of sediments eroded and deposited by Indian rivers, these could have acted as a centre of hominin activities. Palaeolithic research in India has been concentrated around some of its major river valleys, which have yielded a rich record of hominin occupation. So far, 305 Palaeolithic sites have been reported from a gravel context throughout the country, yielding Lower to Upper Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic evidence. However, most of the derived evidence is secondary deposits and stands contested based on its contextuality. Nevertheless, its importance as a source of information about hominin activity cannot be underestimated. This review presents a provisional synthesis of all of the Indian Palaeolithic sites reported from gravel contexts, thereby presenting scope for future multidisciplinary research at these localities.

Abstract Progress over the last 20 years in establishing reliable benchmarks in the Paleolithic of India has been uneven but major successes have been the dating of the earliest Acheulean assemblages in India; the dating of the onset of the Middle Stone Age; the dating of the earliest microlithic assemblages in India; and the dating of the antiquity of human occupation of rain forests in South India and Sri Lanka. Also important is our greater understanding of the Younger Toba Tuff and the impact of the Toba megaeruption 74 ka ago on hominin populations in India. Major uncertainties persist over when the genus Homo first entered South Asia; when our own species, H. sapiens first entered South Asia; the age of the earliest blade assemblages in India; and the antiquity of its rock art.

The use of minerals as pigments in art and on archaeological objects, from the use of ochre in prehistoric caves to the elaborate transformation and use in ancient and modern artist palettes, is reviewed in this chapter. Starting from the purposes of the study of pigments, the chapter presents current trends in the study of coloured minerals in cultural heritage science. It emphasizes through the use of case studies the potential of these minerals in terms of information about former ways of life and especially the artistic techniques employed in ancient times. This information is gained through knowledge of geological and physicochemical processes acting on minerals and on artefacts produced by human activities. Some new trends are presented as the state of the art of how to master most of the methods and techniques useful for investigating our common cultural heritage.

From shell beads in the Palaeolithic and stone beads in the Neolithic to beautiful artificial gems in modern times, the history of gems has roughly paralleled that of humans. In the beginning, myths and folklore about the healing properties of gemstones dominated the story. Today, the story is about scientific techniques making larger or more colourful gems and newly discovered mineral deposits revealing gemstone treasures. In the western world the written history of precious and semiprecious stones begins with the On Stones of the Greek philosopher and naturalist Theophrastus ( ca . 315 BC) followed by the Natural History of the Roman historian Pliny (77 AD), which was the standard work on gems and minerals for more than a thousand years. The gemstones of the Old Testament and those of ancient East Asia tell their separate stories. Following a brief summary of these early works, this paper continues with individual descriptions of the major gems and semiprecious stones, focusing on their two most important attributes – colour and hardness – as well as where they are found. This is followed by a brief discussion of altered gems and a summary of modern interactions of gems and man. This paper concludes with some personal experiences of the author and a brief introduction to the geology of gem deposits.