Abstract Up until the late 1980s geology contributed very little to the study of tsunamis because most were generated by earthquakes which were mainly the domain of seismologists. In 1987–88 however, sediments deposited as tsunamis flooded land were discovered. Subsequently they began to be widely used to identify prehistorical tsunami events, providing a longer-term record than previously available from historical accounts. The sediments offered an opportunity to better define tsunami frequency that could underpin improved risk assessment. When over 2200 people died from a catastrophic tsunami in Papua New Guinea (PNG) in 1998, and a submarine landslide was controversially proven to be the mechanism, marine geologists provided the leadership that led to the identification of this previously unrecognized danger. The catastrophic tsunami in the Indian Ocean in 2004 confirmed the critical importance of sedimentological research in understanding tsunamis. In 2011, the Japan earthquake and tsunami further confirmed the importance of both sediments in tsunami hazard mitigation and the dangers from seabed sediment failures in tsunami generation. Here we recount the history of geological involvement in tsunami science and its importance in advancing understanding of the extent, magnitude and nature of the hazard from tsunamis.

Abstract Sealed, submerged palaeoenvironmental deposits date the time range for lithic technologies and enable inferences about cultural change – potentially more accurately than radiometric methods. Sea-level rises triggered by global warming reduce available land, and change the availability of flora, fauna, geological resources, rivers and wetlands. Australian archaeological studies on human adaptation to climate change focus mainly on terrestrial sites, coastal intensification and the few archaeological sites that were not inundated. The South West Arm project at Port Hacking, south of Sydney, looks at the potential for rock shelters to survive inundation and expand the sites available for studying human adaption to climate change. Site prediction was based on recorded terrestrial rock-shelter landforms at South West Arm. Underwater surveys were conducted by divers who located, photographed and mapped similar formations. No excavation was conducted. The pre-disturbance survey examined approximately 1800 m of seabed, between water depths of 0 and 9 m, primarily along the eastern shoreline of South West Arm where the seabed emulates the steep slope, with sandstone rock outcrops that form terraces and rock overhangs above water. Twelve submerged rock overhangs were recorded and confirmed the potential for rock-shelter sites to survive the process of inundation.

Geoscience is the study of Earth history and processes, a study so broad that individual geoscientists may have little knowledge or skill in common. This essay asserts that there is, nonetheless, a common set of perspectives, approaches, and values that characterizes the discipline. Geoscientists are united by a common commitment to testing hypotheses against observations of the natural system using multiple converging lines of evidence. Geoscientists test hypotheses by comparing modern processes to those found in the rock record; comparing related examples to understand commonalities and differences attributable to process, history, and context; finding multiple converging lines of evidence; and comparing observations to theory-based prediction. They share the perspective that observation and a spatial and temporal organizational scheme are fundamental to understanding Earth systems and processes. Their interpretations are grounded in a common understanding that Earth represents a long-lived, dynamic, complex system for which a 4.6-billion-year history has been shaped by processes operating at different rates. These methods and approaches have evolved over time because they are particularly well adapted to studying Earth. A geoscientist brings this approach to any collaboration, as well as deep knowledge and skill for studying a particular aspect of Earth, and a set of cultural values that support collaborative problem solving. Developing such individuals is the central goal of geoscience majors and graduate programs.

Expert geoscientists think in terms of systems that involve multiple processes with complex interactions. Earth system science has become increasingly important at the professional level, and an understanding of systems is a key learning goal at all levels of the earth science curriculum. In this paper, research in the cognitive and learning sciences is brought to bear on the question of how students learn systems thinking and on the challenges of developing effective instructional programs. The research suggests that learning systems concepts is difficult and that it involves extended learning progressions, requiring structured curricular integration across levels of K–16 instruction. Following a discussion of these challenges, current instructional innovations are outlined, and an agenda for needed research on learning and teaching systems thinking is proposed.

Knowledge integration involves pulling together ideas and information into a coherent framework such that new ideas can be linked into already established ideas, and groups of ideas can be mobilized for solving problems, answering questions, or understanding observations. Geoscientists are called on to integrate information from many different modes of inquiry, across different cultural and scientific traditions, in the face of incomplete evidence and in support of ill-structured problems. This paper explores five strategies to foster knowledge integration through geoscience education: three organizational schemas for content, plus two integrative practices. These are (1) integrate around a locale of significance to students, (2) integrate around a societally important problem, (3) integrate around a suite of “big ideas,” (4) integrate using visual representations, and (5) integrate using physical and computer models. For each strategy, we describe examples of its use in geoscience education, critique advantages and potential disadvantages, and suggest questions for future research. We conclude with a thought experiment envisioning the nodes and linkages in hypothetical mental concept maps of students educated with each of these five strategies, seeking to improve on a fragmented mental map of isolated nodes and weak linkages.

Planning and implementation of astronaut observations and photography from lunar orbit during the Apollo program were based on two expectations: (1) orbiting astronauts would be able to add to our knowledge by describing lunar features from their unique vantage point, and, (2) as illustrated by the Gemini Earth-orbital missions, expertly obtained photographs would allow us to place detailed information from field exploration into a regional context. To achieve these goals, the astronauts had to be thoroughly familiar with concepts of lunar geology and intellectually prepared to note and document the unexpected. This required mission-specific training to add to their store of knowledge about the Moon. Because the activity was not part of the original program objectives, the training was conducted at the behest of the astronauts. The training time grew from occasional briefings on the early flights to extensive classroom sessions and flyover exercises for a formal “experiment” on the last three missions. This chapter summarizes the historical development and salient results of training the Moon-bound astronauts for these tasks. The astronaut-derived orbital observations and photographs increased our knowledge of the Moon beyond that possible from robotic sensors. Outstanding results include: realization of the limitations of photographic film to depict natural lunar surface colors; description and documentation of unknown features on the lunar farside; observation by Apollo 15 of dark-haloed craters that helped in the selection of the Apollo 17 landing site; and real-time confirmation that the “orange soil” discovered at the Apollo 17 site occurs elsewhere on the Moon.

The Gruithuisen region in northern Oceanus Procellarum on the Moon contains three distinctive domes interpreted as nonmare volcanic features of Imbrian age. A 4 d extravehicular activity (EVA), four-astronaut sortie mission to explore these enigmatic features and the surrounding terrain provides the opportunity to address key outstanding lunar science questions. The landing site is on the mare south of Gruithuisen 3 (36.22°N, 40.60°W). From this site, diverse geologic terrains and features are accessible, including highlands, dome material, mare basalts, multiple craters, small rilles, and a negative topographic feature of unknown origin. Preliminary mission planning is based on Clementine multispectral data, Lunar Prospector geochemical estimates, and high-resolution (0.5 m/pixel) stereo images from the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Narrow Angle Camera. Science objectives for the mission include: (1) determining the nature of the domes, (2) identifying and measuring the distribution of any potassium, rare earth elements, and phosphorus (KREEP)- and thorium-rich materials, (3) collecting samples for age dating of key units to investigate the evolution of the region, and (4) deploying a passive seismic grid as part of a global lunar network. Satisfying the science objectives requires 7 h, ~20 km round-trip EVAs, and significant time driving on slopes up to ~15°.

Students with physical disabilities encounter challenges in any scientific discipline, yet the geosciences have extremely low participation levels for persons with disabilities. Because of the emphasis placed on field research at the undergraduate level, persons with mobility impairments face limited opportunities for progressing in the geosciences. One strategy to address this is the application of adaptive technologies, such as virtual field trips (VFTs), as a supplement to traditional field instruction. A common goal of VFTs and other adaptive technologies is to promote equal access to undergraduate geoscience curricula for physically impaired students. If the scientific talents of these students are embraced and accommodated, regardless of their physical ability, the overall welfare of the geosciences as a discipline is enhanced. This paper describes ongoing research into the development of one specific VFT: an electronic re-creation of Mammoth Cave National Park for the Introduction to Cave and Karst Systems field course at a Midwestern research university. This paper focuses on the theoretical processes necessary to conduct qualitative inquiry for the purpose of developing an accessible, alternative field-based learning environment. Grounded theory and critical theory are contrasted as two possible guiding frameworks. Three roles for the researcher are compared: researcher-as-observer, participant-researcher, and action-researcher. Phenomenology is discussed as the preferred methodological choice for this research, and attendant methods are described. Finally, a discussion of validity and reliability issues is provided. This paper is intended to serve as a guide for future researchers embarking on qualitative studies similar to this one.

ABSTRACT The goal of this field excursion is to provide an opportunity for focused exploration of field-based teaching and learning. Learning in the field is an essential element in the education and development of geology students, but until recently has received relatively little attention by education researchers. Set against the backdrop of classic bedrock localities of the Midcontinent Rift System in northeastern Minnesota and using new knowledge of how people learn, of learners, and of pedagogical practices, this excursion explores goals for student learning in the field and effective instructional practices for helping students realize those goals.