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NARROW
GeoRef Subject
-
all geography including DSDP/ODP Sites and Legs
-
Africa
-
East Africa
-
Tanzania (1)
-
-
East African Rift (1)
-
Southern Africa
-
Karoo Basin (1)
-
Namibia (1)
-
South Africa
-
Western Cape Province South Africa (1)
-
-
-
-
Antarctica (1)
-
Asia
-
Altai-Sayan region (1)
-
Far East
-
China
-
Altyn Tagh Fault (1)
-
Jilin China (1)
-
Kunlun Mountains (1)
-
South China Block (1)
-
Xiaoqinling Mountains (1)
-
Xizang China (1)
-
-
-
Himalayas (1)
-
Karakoram (1)
-
Tibetan Plateau (1)
-
Tuva Russian Federation (1)
-
-
Atlantic Ocean
-
North Atlantic
-
North Sea (1)
-
-
-
Australasia
-
Australia
-
South Australia (1)
-
-
-
Canada
-
Eastern Canada
-
Newfoundland and Labrador
-
Labrador (3)
-
Newfoundland (3)
-
-
Ontario
-
Algoma District Ontario
-
Elliot Lake Ontario (1)
-
-
-
-
Western Canada
-
Alberta
-
Alberta Basin (1)
-
-
-
-
Commonwealth of Independent States
-
Russian Federation
-
Tuva Russian Federation (1)
-
-
-
Cordillera de la Costa (1)
-
Europe
-
Alps (1)
-
Central Europe
-
Austria (1)
-
Germany (1)
-
Switzerland
-
Zurich Switzerland (1)
-
-
-
Jura Mountains (1)
-
Western Europe
-
United Kingdom
-
Great Britain
-
Scotland
-
Perthshire Scotland (1)
-
-
-
-
-
-
Front Range (1)
-
Green River basin (1)
-
Mexico
-
Coahuila Mexico (1)
-
-
North America
-
Appalachian Basin (1)
-
Chihuahuan Desert (1)
-
Great Plains
-
Northern Great Plains (1)
-
-
Rocky Mountains
-
U. S. Rocky Mountains
-
Medicine Bow Mountains (1)
-
-
-
-
Oceania
-
Melanesia
-
Fiji (1)
-
-
-
Pacific Ocean
-
North Pacific
-
Northwest Pacific
-
Mariana Trough (1)
-
Okinawa Trough (1)
-
Shatsky Rise (1)
-
-
-
South Pacific
-
Southwest Pacific
-
North Fiji Basin (1)
-
-
-
West Pacific
-
Northwest Pacific
-
Mariana Trough (1)
-
Okinawa Trough (1)
-
Shatsky Rise (1)
-
-
Southwest Pacific
-
North Fiji Basin (1)
-
-
-
-
Pacific region
-
Circum-Pacific region (1)
-
-
Platte River basin (1)
-
Puna (1)
-
South America
-
Andes
-
Southern Andes (1)
-
-
Argentina (2)
-
Chile
-
Atacama Desert (1)
-
-
Patagonia (1)
-
-
United States
-
Anadarko Basin (1)
-
Arizona (1)
-
Colorado (1)
-
Colorado Plateau (1)
-
Hugoton Embayment (1)
-
Idaho
-
Snake River plain (1)
-
-
Illinois (1)
-
Illinois Basin (1)
-
Kansas
-
Hugoton Field (1)
-
-
Missouri
-
Saint Francois Mountains (1)
-
-
Nebraska (1)
-
New Mexico (1)
-
New York (1)
-
North Carolina
-
Lee County North Carolina (1)
-
-
Oklahoma (1)
-
Palo Duro Basin (1)
-
Texas
-
Amarillo Uplift (1)
-
Dalhart Basin (1)
-
-
U. S. Rocky Mountains
-
Medicine Bow Mountains (1)
-
-
Utah
-
San Rafael Swell (1)
-
-
-
-
commodities
-
brines (3)
-
glass materials (1)
-
helium gas (1)
-
metal ores
-
gold ores (3)
-
iron ores (1)
-
lead ores (1)
-
lead-zinc deposits (1)
-
rare earth deposits (1)
-
uranium ores (3)
-
zinc ores (1)
-
-
mineral deposits, genesis (3)
-
mineral exploration (3)
-
oil and gas fields (2)
-
petroleum
-
natural gas
-
coalbed methane (1)
-
-
-
phosphate deposits (1)
-
refractory materials (1)
-
tight sands (1)
-
-
elements, isotopes
-
boron
-
B-11/B-10 (1)
-
-
carbon
-
C-13/C-12 (8)
-
C-14 (4)
-
-
halogens
-
bromine (1)
-
chlorine
-
Cl-36 (5)
-
-
iodine
-
I-129 (1)
-
-
-
hydrogen
-
D/H (2)
-
deuterium (1)
-
tritium (2)
-
-
isotope ratios (31)
-
isotopes
-
radioactive isotopes
-
Al-26 (6)
-
Ar-38 (1)
-
Ar-38/Ar-36 (4)
-
Be-10 (10)
-
Be-7 (1)
-
C-14 (4)
-
Cl-36 (5)
-
I-129 (1)
-
K-40 (1)
-
Pb-206/Pb-204 (1)
-
Pb-207/Pb-204 (1)
-
Pb-208/Pb-204 (1)
-
Pu-244 (1)
-
tritium (2)
-
-
stable isotopes
-
Ar-36 (4)
-
Ar-38/Ar-36 (4)
-
Ar-40 (2)
-
Ar-40/Ar-36 (7)
-
B-11/B-10 (1)
-
C-13/C-12 (8)
-
D/H (2)
-
deuterium (1)
-
He-3 (11)
-
He-4 (4)
-
He-4/He-3 (17)
-
Kr-84 (5)
-
Mg-25/Mg-24 (1)
-
N-15/N-14 (3)
-
Nd-144/Nd-143 (1)
-
Ne-20 (4)
-
Ne-21 (21)
-
Ne-22 (1)
-
Ne-22/Ne-20 (9)
-
Ne-22/Ne-21 (8)
-
O-17/O-16 (1)
-
O-18/O-16 (3)
-
Pb-206/Pb-204 (1)
-
Pb-207/Pb-204 (1)
-
Pb-208/Pb-204 (1)
-
Sr-87/Sr-86 (3)
-
Xe-129 (3)
-
Xe-132 (1)
-
Xe-136/Xe-132 (1)
-
Zn-66 (1)
-
-
-
metals
-
actinides
-
plutonium
-
Pu-244 (1)
-
-
thorium (1)
-
-
alkali metals
-
potassium
-
K-40 (1)
-
-
sodium (1)
-
-
alkaline earth metals
-
beryllium
-
Be-10 (10)
-
Be-7 (1)
-
-
magnesium
-
Mg-25/Mg-24 (1)
-
-
strontium
-
Sr-87/Sr-86 (3)
-
-
-
aluminum
-
Al-26 (6)
-
-
chromium (1)
-
hafnium (1)
-
iron (1)
-
lead
-
Pb-206/Pb-204 (1)
-
Pb-207/Pb-204 (1)
-
Pb-208/Pb-204 (1)
-
-
molybdenum (1)
-
platinum group
-
platinum (1)
-
-
rare earths
-
neodymium
-
Nd-144/Nd-143 (1)
-
-
samarium (1)
-
-
silver (1)
-
tantalum (1)
-
titanium (2)
-
tungsten (1)
-
zinc
-
Zn-66 (1)
-
-
zirconium (1)
-
-
nitrogen
-
N-15/N-14 (3)
-
-
noble gases
-
argon
-
Ar-36 (4)
-
Ar-38 (1)
-
Ar-38/Ar-36 (4)
-
Ar-40 (2)
-
Ar-40/Ar-36 (7)
-
-
helium
-
He-3 (11)
-
He-4 (4)
-
He-4/He-3 (17)
-
-
krypton
-
Kr-84 (5)
-
-
neon
-
Ne-20 (4)
-
Ne-21 (21)
-
Ne-22 (1)
-
Ne-22/Ne-20 (9)
-
Ne-22/Ne-21 (8)
-
-
radon (2)
-
xenon
-
Xe-129 (3)
-
Xe-132 (1)
-
Xe-136/Xe-132 (1)
-
-
-
oxygen
-
O-17/O-16 (1)
-
O-18/O-16 (3)
-
-
silicon (1)
-
-
geochronology methods
-
exposure age (11)
-
optically stimulated luminescence (1)
-
-
geologic age
-
Cenozoic
-
Quaternary
-
Holocene (2)
-
Pleistocene
-
upper Pleistocene
-
Weichselian
-
upper Weichselian
-
Younger Dryas (1)
-
-
-
-
-
-
Tertiary
-
Neogene
-
Miocene
-
Ash Hollow Formation (1)
-
middle Miocene (1)
-
-
Pliocene
-
upper Pliocene (1)
-
-
-
Paleogene
-
Oligocene (1)
-
-
-
-
Mesozoic
-
Cretaceous
-
Colorado Group (1)
-
Lower Cretaceous
-
Mannville Group (1)
-
-
-
Jurassic
-
Upper Jurassic
-
Entrada Sandstone (1)
-
-
-
Navajo Sandstone (1)
-
Triassic
-
Upper Triassic
-
Norian (1)
-
-
-
-
Paleozoic
-
Carboniferous
-
Mississippian (1)
-
Pennsylvanian
-
Springfield Coal Member (1)
-
-
-
Devonian
-
Middle Devonian
-
Marcellus Shale (1)
-
-
Upper Devonian
-
Canadaway Group (1)
-
-
-
New Albany Shale (1)
-
Ordovician
-
Middle Ordovician
-
Black River Group (1)
-
-
Trenton Group (1)
-
-
Permian
-
Chase Group (1)
-
Lower Permian
-
Wolfcampian (1)
-
-
Rotliegendes (1)
-
-
Silurian (1)
-
Supai Formation (1)
-
upper Paleozoic (1)
-
-
Precambrian
-
Archean (3)
-
upper Precambrian
-
Proterozoic
-
Mesoproterozoic (1)
-
Paleoproterozoic (1)
-
-
-
-
-
igneous rocks
-
igneous rocks
-
plutonic rocks
-
diabase (1)
-
-
volcanic rocks
-
basalts
-
mid-ocean ridge basalts (3)
-
ocean-island basalts (1)
-
-
glasses
-
volcanic glass (1)
-
-
-
-
-
metamorphic rocks
-
metamorphic rocks
-
quartzites (2)
-
-
-
meteorites
-
meteorites
-
stony meteorites
-
achondrites
-
ureilite (1)
-
-
chondrites
-
carbonaceous chondrites (2)
-
ordinary chondrites
-
L chondrites (1)
-
LL chondrites (1)
-
-
-
-
-
-
minerals
-
alloys
-
carbides (1)
-
-
carbonates (1)
-
minerals (2)
-
native elements
-
diamond (1)
-
graphite (1)
-
-
oxides
-
hematite (2)
-
iron oxides (2)
-
rutile (1)
-
-
phosphates
-
apatite (2)
-
-
silicates
-
chain silicates
-
amphibole group (1)
-
-
framework silicates
-
feldspar group
-
alkali feldspar
-
K-feldspar (1)
-
-
-
silica minerals
-
quartz (2)
-
stishovite (1)
-
-
-
orthosilicates
-
nesosilicates
-
olivine group
-
olivine (1)
-
-
titanite group
-
titanite (1)
-
-
zircon group
-
zircon (1)
-
-
-
-
sheet silicates
-
mica group (1)
-
-
-
sulfides
-
chalcopyrite (1)
-
pyrite (1)
-
sphalerite (1)
-
-
-
Primary terms
-
absolute age (4)
-
Africa
-
East Africa
-
Tanzania (1)
-
-
East African Rift (1)
-
Southern Africa
-
Karoo Basin (1)
-
Namibia (1)
-
South Africa
-
Western Cape Province South Africa (1)
-
-
-
-
Antarctica (1)
-
Asia
-
Altai-Sayan region (1)
-
Far East
-
China
-
Altyn Tagh Fault (1)
-
Jilin China (1)
-
Kunlun Mountains (1)
-
South China Block (1)
-
Xiaoqinling Mountains (1)
-
Xizang China (1)
-
-
-
Himalayas (1)
-
Karakoram (1)
-
Tibetan Plateau (1)
-
Tuva Russian Federation (1)
-
-
asteroids (2)
-
Atlantic Ocean
-
North Atlantic
-
North Sea (1)
-
-
-
atmosphere (5)
-
Australasia
-
Australia
-
South Australia (1)
-
-
-
biography (1)
-
boron
-
B-11/B-10 (1)
-
-
brines (3)
-
Canada
-
Eastern Canada
-
Newfoundland and Labrador
-
Labrador (3)
-
Newfoundland (3)
-
-
Ontario
-
Algoma District Ontario
-
Elliot Lake Ontario (1)
-
-
-
-
Western Canada
-
Alberta
-
Alberta Basin (1)
-
-
-
-
carbon
-
C-13/C-12 (8)
-
C-14 (4)
-
-
Cenozoic
-
Quaternary
-
Holocene (2)
-
Pleistocene
-
upper Pleistocene
-
Weichselian
-
upper Weichselian
-
Younger Dryas (1)
-
-
-
-
-
-
Tertiary
-
Neogene
-
Miocene
-
Ash Hollow Formation (1)
-
middle Miocene (1)
-
-
Pliocene
-
upper Pliocene (1)
-
-
-
Paleogene
-
Oligocene (1)
-
-
-
-
chemical analysis (1)
-
climate change (2)
-
crust (4)
-
crystal chemistry (1)
-
data processing (2)
-
deformation (1)
-
diagenesis (1)
-
Earth (4)
-
economic geology (3)
-
Europe
-
Alps (1)
-
Central Europe
-
Austria (1)
-
Germany (1)
-
Switzerland
-
Zurich Switzerland (1)
-
-
-
Jura Mountains (1)
-
Western Europe
-
United Kingdom
-
Great Britain
-
Scotland
-
Perthshire Scotland (1)
-
-
-
-
-
-
faults (5)
-
folds (2)
-
geochemistry (11)
-
geochronology (7)
-
geomorphology (2)
-
glacial geology (1)
-
ground water (10)
-
heat flow (2)
-
helium gas (1)
-
hydrogen
-
D/H (2)
-
deuterium (1)
-
tritium (2)
-
-
hydrology (1)
-
igneous rocks
-
plutonic rocks
-
diabase (1)
-
-
volcanic rocks
-
basalts
-
mid-ocean ridge basalts (3)
-
ocean-island basalts (1)
-
-
glasses
-
volcanic glass (1)
-
-
-
-
inclusions
-
fluid inclusions (6)
-
-
Integrated Ocean Drilling Program
-
Expedition 324
-
IODP Site U1347 (1)
-
IODP Site U1350 (1)
-
-
-
interplanetary space (1)
-
intrusions (1)
-
isotopes
-
radioactive isotopes
-
Al-26 (6)
-
Ar-38 (1)
-
Ar-38/Ar-36 (4)
-
Be-10 (10)
-
Be-7 (1)
-
C-14 (4)
-
Cl-36 (5)
-
I-129 (1)
-
K-40 (1)
-
Pb-206/Pb-204 (1)
-
Pb-207/Pb-204 (1)
-
Pb-208/Pb-204 (1)
-
Pu-244 (1)
-
tritium (2)
-
-
stable isotopes
-
Ar-36 (4)
-
Ar-38/Ar-36 (4)
-
Ar-40 (2)
-
Ar-40/Ar-36 (7)
-
B-11/B-10 (1)
-
C-13/C-12 (8)
-
D/H (2)
-
deuterium (1)
-
He-3 (11)
-
He-4 (4)
-
He-4/He-3 (17)
-
Kr-84 (5)
-
Mg-25/Mg-24 (1)
-
N-15/N-14 (3)
-
Nd-144/Nd-143 (1)
-
Ne-20 (4)
-
Ne-21 (21)
-
Ne-22 (1)
-
Ne-22/Ne-20 (9)
-
Ne-22/Ne-21 (8)
-
O-17/O-16 (1)
-
O-18/O-16 (3)
-
Pb-206/Pb-204 (1)
-
Pb-207/Pb-204 (1)
-
Pb-208/Pb-204 (1)
-
Sr-87/Sr-86 (3)
-
Xe-129 (3)
-
Xe-132 (1)
-
Xe-136/Xe-132 (1)
-
Zn-66 (1)
-
-
-
magmas (2)
-
mantle (9)
-
Mesozoic
-
Cretaceous
-
Colorado Group (1)
-
Lower Cretaceous
-
Mannville Group (1)
-
-
-
Jurassic
-
Upper Jurassic
-
Entrada Sandstone (1)
-
-
-
Navajo Sandstone (1)
-
Triassic
-
Upper Triassic
-
Norian (1)
-
-
-
-
metal ores
-
gold ores (3)
-
iron ores (1)
-
lead ores (1)
-
lead-zinc deposits (1)
-
rare earth deposits (1)
-
uranium ores (3)
-
zinc ores (1)
-
-
metals
-
actinides
-
plutonium
-
Pu-244 (1)
-
-
thorium (1)
-
-
alkali metals
-
potassium
-
K-40 (1)
-
-
sodium (1)
-
-
alkaline earth metals
-
beryllium
-
Be-10 (10)
-
Be-7 (1)
-
-
magnesium
-
Mg-25/Mg-24 (1)
-
-
strontium
-
Sr-87/Sr-86 (3)
-
-
-
aluminum
-
Al-26 (6)
-
-
chromium (1)
-
hafnium (1)
-
iron (1)
-
lead
-
Pb-206/Pb-204 (1)
-
Pb-207/Pb-204 (1)
-
Pb-208/Pb-204 (1)
-
-
molybdenum (1)
-
platinum group
-
platinum (1)
-
-
rare earths
-
neodymium
-
Nd-144/Nd-143 (1)
-
-
samarium (1)
-
-
silver (1)
-
tantalum (1)
-
titanium (2)
-
tungsten (1)
-
zinc
-
Zn-66 (1)
-
-
zirconium (1)
-
-
metamorphic rocks
-
quartzites (2)
-
-
metamorphism (1)
-
meteorites
-
stony meteorites
-
achondrites
-
ureilite (1)
-
-
chondrites
-
carbonaceous chondrites (2)
-
ordinary chondrites
-
L chondrites (1)
-
LL chondrites (1)
-
-
-
-
-
Mexico
-
Coahuila Mexico (1)
-
-
mineral deposits, genesis (3)
-
mineral exploration (3)
-
minerals (2)
-
Moon (2)
-
nitrogen
-
N-15/N-14 (3)
-
-
noble gases
-
argon
-
Ar-36 (4)
-
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neon
Space history of the High Possil and Strathmore meteorites from Ne and Ar isotopes
The principles of helium exploration
4. INTERMEZZO: VOLCANOES AND FIELD WORK
Exposure-age data from across Antarctica reveal mid-Miocene establishment of polar desert climate
NOBLE GASES FINGERPRINT THE SOURCE AND EVOLUTION OF ORE-FORMING FLUIDS OF CARLIN-TYPE GOLD DEPOSITS IN THE GOLDEN TRIANGLE, SOUTH CHINA
Sound velocity of neon at high pressures and temperatures by Brillouin scattering
Origin of helium and nitrogen in the Panhandle–Hugoton field of Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas, United States
Detrital cosmogenic 21 Ne records decoupling of source-to-sink signals by sediment storage and recycling in Miocene to present rivers of the Great Plains, Nebraska, USA
Abstract: While coalbed methane (CBM) is a significant source of natural gas production globally, uncertainties regarding the proportions of biogenic and thermogenic natural gas in CBM reservoirs still remain. We integrate major gases, hydrocarbon composition, hydrocarbon stable isotopes and noble gases in fluids from 20 producing CBM wells to more accurately constrain the genetic source of natural gases in the eastern Illinois Basin, USA. Previous studies have indicated primarily biogenic production of methane (>99.6%) with negligible contributions from thermogenic natural gases. However, by integrating noble gases, we identify quantifiable (up to 19.2%) contributions of exogenous thermogenic gas in produced gases from the Seelyville and Springfield coal seams. Thermogenic gases are distinguished by a positive relationship between methane, ethane and helium-4, lower C 1 /C 2 +, heavier δ 13 C-CH 4 , more radiogenic noble gases ( 4 He, 21 Ne*, 40 Ar*), and lower abundances of atmospherically derived gases ( 20 Ne, 36 Ar). Biogenic gases displayed lighter δ 13 C-CH 4 , higher C 1 /C 2 +, higher levels of atmospheric gases and lower abundances of radiogenic noble gases. Our data suggest that natural gases from a deeper, exogenous thermogenic source likely migrated to the Pennsylvanian-aged coals at an unknown time and later mixed with biogenic methane diluting the geochemical signature of the thermogenic methane within the Springfield and Seelyville coal seams.
Determining fluid migration and isolation times in multiphase crustal domains using noble gases
Mineral Thermometry and Fluid Inclusion Studies of the Pea Ridge Iron Oxide-Apatite–Rare Earth Element Deposit, Mesoproterozoic St. Francois Mountains Terrane, Southeast Missouri, USA
Origin and evolution of ore-forming fluids, and genesis of the Duhuangling and Jiusangou gold deposits in eastern Yanbian, northeast China
Experimental Studies and Model Analysis of Noble Gas Fractionation in Porous Media
Nucleosynthetic Isotope Variations of Siderophile and Chalcophile Elements in the Solar System
Abstract Noble gas isotopes, major element isotopes, and gas composition were obtained from the shut-in Butler #3 (API 32-105-00008) and Simpson #1 (API 32-105-00007) wells, drilled in 1998, and sample gas from the Cumnock Formation of Late Norian age. This is the first gas chemistry compilation of these wells. The wells’ gas, sampled in 2009 and in 2014, had a strong “fruity” light petroleum odor, a visible condensate plume when the wells were flowed, and are in the oil and wet gas window. Shutin well pressures were ~900 psi (Butler #3), and ~200 psi (Simpson #1); both had a substantial initial gas flow. Limited data are from the 1982 Dummitt-Palmer #1 CBM well (API 32-105-00002), now plugged and abandoned. Helium concentrations were ~0.20% to 0.24% from the noble gas analysis, neon ranged from 0.11 to 0.04 ppm, and argon was approximately 33 ppm. The measured noble gas composition contains very low atmospheric contamination with helium isotopes (0.07 R/R A ) clearly defined by a crustal origin, while neon and krypton and are mainly attributed to atmospheric origin ( 20 Ne/ 22 Ne ~9.8, 86 Kr/ 84 Kr ~0.3). Argon isotopes are mixed between crustal and atmospheric origins with 40 Ar/ 36 Ar values ~ 418 to 520. The F 20 Ne/ 36 Ar (~0.9 to 2.6), F 84 Kr/ 36 Ar (~0.8) and F 132 Xe/ 36 Ar (0.6-0.7) in the gas show enrichment in the light isotope associated with multi-stage fractionation processes with gas and fluid interaction. The methane content (range ~58 to 64%) is inverse to the nitrogen content from denitrification of very thin ammonium-bearing units (also rich in oil), and likely from illite in overlying strata.
COSMOGENIC 21 Ne AND 10 Be REVEAL A MORE THAN 2 Ma ALLUVIAL FAN FLANKING THE CAPE MOUNTAINS, SOUTH AFRICA
Noble gas evidence for the presence of recycled material in magma sources of the Shatsky Rise
The Shatsky Rise is an oceanic plateau consisting of three main massifs that were constructed in the Pacific Ocean by intense volcanism during the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous. In order to explore the sources of this oceanic plateau, we present noble gas compositions from fresh quenched glasses cored by ocean drilling at Integrated Ocean Drilling Program Site U1347 on the Tamu Massif and Site U1350 on the Ori Massif. The studied glasses are normal-type basalts, the most abundant of four types of basalts defined by trace element compositions. Possible disturbances of noble gas compositions by posteruption radiogenic ingrowth in aged glasses are assessed by extraction of gases from glass vesicles by stepwise crushing. The 3 He/ 4 He ratios in glasses from Site U1347 are lower than atmospheric 3 He/ 4 He, presumably owing to magma degassing coupled with radiogenic ingrowth of 4 He. In contrast, glasses from Site U1350 exhibit a limited range of 3 He/ 4 He (5.5–5.9 Ra). Uniform 3 He/ 4 He cannot be achieved if gases in glass vesicles have been affected by secondary contamination or posteruption radiogenic ingrowth. Therefore, the uniform 3 He/ 4 He in the normal-type basalts from Site U1350 is ascribed to their source characteristics. Relatively low 3 He/ 4 He among oceanic basalts suggests the involvement of recycled slab material in the source of the normal-type basalts. However, the depleted radiogenic isotope signatures are inconsistent with recycled slab being a distinct melting component. Instead, we propose that the normal-type basalts of the Shatsky Rise were sourced from a domain where subducted fertile material is dispersed in the mantle.