Abstract In the 1930s, Alfred Bentz, August Moos and Karl Krejci-Graf were among the most noteworthy petroleum geologists in Germany. Being scientific modernists, they systematized the search for oil, introducing modern exploration methods. All three, at some stage, worked for the German state on providing the petroleum needed by the German military during World War II. The three colleagues seem to have had an amicable relationship. They were, however, very different. Bentz was not a member of the National Socialist party but obviously lent his expertise to the regime; as did Krejci-Graf, who, although also was not a party member, was a member of the SS, whereas Moos, due to his Jewish background, was murdered in January 1945 in the concentration camp of Buchenwald. This paper endeavours to sketch the lives of the three colleagues, highlighting their relationship and the interconnectedness of contemporary moral issues with professional and scientific demands.

Abstract This guidebook chapter outlines a walking tour that provides an introduction to the geological, archaeological, and historical setting of Pittsburgh, with an emphasis on the use of local and imported geologic materials and resources in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The focus is on downtown Pittsburgh, the low-lying triangle of land where the Monongahela and Allegheny Rivers join to form the Ohio River, and Coal Hill (Mount Washington), the escarpment along the Monongahela River to its south. Topics include the importance of—and concomitant effect of—historic coal use; use of local and imported geologic materials, including dimension stone used for buildings and gravestones, and chert used for gunflints and millstones; the frontier forts built at the site; and the ubiquitous landslides along Coal Hill.

Abstract The siege of Petersburg and Richmond during the American Civil War in 1864–1865 provides a stellar example of how geology can affect military operations and thus the course of history. During the Union drive to take the Confederate capital, they used Virginia’s broad tidal rivers on the Atlantic Coastal Plain as supply lines for their huge army. During the siege, both sides took advantage of the unconsolidated Cenozoic sediments of the Coastal Plain to create a new style of combat—trench warfare—which would be taken to horrifying extremes in World War I. This trip visits seven sites of both historic and geological significance in the Petersburg area.

Abstract The 1863 Battle of Gettysburg in south-central Pennsylvania was one of the most important in American history, as well as the biggest ever fought within America’s boundaries. It shows clearly how underlying geology and surface topography can influence military actions. Thus, it continues to attract the attention of many specialists of varied interests, in addition to the general public (who came out for the 150th-anniversary reenactments two years ago). Previously, we prepared a concise field-trip guide (Cuffey et al., 2006a) for use on organized field trips across the battlefield, and for later self-guiding examination of critical sites thereon. Because that guide remains relevant and appropriate, it is available in its entirety, 1 for use with this year’s GSA Annual Meeting field trip. Please see the National Park Service battlefield map therein (Cuffey et al., 2006a, p. 2, Fig. 1). A few helpful updates can be added to that guide and are included in this introductory paper. They concern the most visibly battle-damaged building on the battlefield, the similar 1859 Battle of Solferino, and the new Gettysburg Battlefield Visitors’ Center. 1 GSA Data Repository Item 2015275, “Geology of the Gettysburg battlefi eld: How Mesozoic events and processes impacted American history” (Cuffey et al.,2006a), is available at www.geosociety.org/pubs/ft2015.htm, or on request from editing@geosociety.org or Documents Secretary, GSA, P.O. Box 9140, Boulder, CO 80301-9140, USA.

Abstract National defense is viewed by many as a uniquely military activity to fight and win our nation’s wars. The world that we live in today causes us to rethink this idea as the realities of today’s defense missions take shape. The wars in Iraq and Afghanistan are part of what is reshaping our image of national defense, but also emerging is the recognition that large-scale environmental degradation manifests security threats that can be global in scope. This paper examines this issue in the context of environmental security analysis. Although, the security implication of climate change is the issue that has brought new focus to this concept, this one environmental calamity is not the only environmental security challenge we will face in the future. The paper outlines an approach to analyzing environmental security threats on a regional and world scale. It is a fusion of science, political science, and strategic defense analysis. The product of this work is an environmental security analytical model. The secondary value of this paper is to advance the debate and discussion of environmental security as a fundamental component of strategic defense analysis.

Abstract Potential military applications of geology became apparent in Europe by the late eighteenth century, notably to Napoleon Bonaparte. In the United Kingdom, nineteenth-century practice was commonly to teach elementary geology to army officer cadets, and in twentieth-century conflicts to deploy a single uniformed geologist as a staff officer within each major regional headquarters, initially leaving terrain analysis to geographers. In Germany, considerably greater use was made of uniformed geologists serving as teams within all theaters of military operation in both world wars, generating a wealth of data now published or accessible in national archives. In the United States, a few military geologists were appointed to serve in uniform in France during World War I, but during World War II, a far greater number were civilians, based within a Military Geology Unit of the U.S. Geological Survey at Washington, D.C. Despite different organizational backgrounds, and irrespective of nationality, military geologists have addressed similar geoscience problems.

Abstract The United States Army has been a functioning entity for nearly 240 years and throughout those years has faced changing military threats. We focus here on when, where, and why military installations, primarily those of the Army, were created and placed on the landscape, and we examine some of the ways in which their situation changed as the country shifted from a domestic protection stance to a more internationalist projection-oriented operational philosophy. The 1790s, the 1890s, and the 1990s each presented challenges—but of very different types. Were we responding to external or internal threats? What were the needs of the era? Were they focused on materiel production, on leadership and training, on protecting our coastlines, on protecting travel routes within the country, or on preparing to project force hundreds or thousands of miles outside the United States? At one time, one or more of these differing concerns were the driving reasons behind the establishment of a military installation. The current “landscape” of installations reflects a response to these differing threats across our entire nation’s history. This is why the U.S. Defense Department has recently been reviewing the inventory of military bases, to determine if they are all still relevant and useful. Do we now have too many or too few installations? Or, are they in the wrong place to answer the current and emerging threats? Finally, what happens when an installation is believed to no longer be needed? When and how may an installation be converted to another life?

Abstract Arid regions present formidable challenges to the conduct of contemporary military operations. Fundamental geographic factors such as radiation balance, wind and dust, and unique terrain have affected the outcome of desert campaigns and battles throughout history. While the scientific community understands desert geography, the fundamental effects of environmental factors on military operations are rarely well known or understood. Some level of understanding is necessary to provide context for researchers solving military problems. The purpose of this paper is to offer a military context for the work in this volume. This study provides a brief summary of the influences selected environmental factors may have on modern military forces operating in hot desert environments. In particular, this research examines the effects of unique desert terrain, aeolian processes and dust, and radiation balance with regard to troops, equipment, and tactics; historical and modern examples illustrate these effects.