Abstract Gold is either the only economically important metal or a major by-product in 11 well-characterized deposit types—paleoplacer, orogenic, porphyry, epithermal, Carlin, placer, reduced intrusion related, volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS), skarn, carbonate replacement, and iron oxide-copper-gold (IOCG), arguably more than for those of any other metal; it also dominates a number of deposits of uncertain or unknown origin. Major gold concentrations formed worldwide from the Mesoarchean to the Pleistocene, from Earth’s surface to midcrustal paleodepths, alone or in association with silver, base metals, and/or uranium, and from hydrothermal fluids of predominantly metamorphic, magmatic, meteoric, seawater, or, uncommonly, basinal origins, as well as from mafic magma or ambient surface water. Most of the Neoproterozoic and Phanerozoic deposits unequivocally formed in accretionary orogens. As an introduction to this compilation of the world’s major gold deposits and provinces, this paper provides a thumbnail sketch of each gold deposit type, including geologic and economic characteristics and widely accepted genetic models, as well as briefly discusses aspects of their spatial and temporal associations and distributions.

Abstract The structural geology and tectonic setting of hydrothermal gold deposits are paramount for understanding their genesis and for their exploration. Strong structural control on mineralization is one of the defining features of these deposits and arises because the permeabilities of crustal rocks are too low to allow the formation of hydrothermal deposits on realistic timescales unless rocks are deformed. Deformation zones and networks of deformation zones are the fundamental structures that control mineralization. Systematically analyzing deposit geometry, kinematics, and dynamics leads to the most thorough comprehension of a deposit. Geometric analysis relates orebody shape to controlling structures, and networks of deformation zones can be analyzed using topology to understand their connectivity and mineralizing potential. Kinematic analysis determines the location of permeability creation and mineralization. New views of shear zone kinematics allow for variable ratios of pure to simple shear, which change likely directions of mineralization. Multiple orientations of mineralized deformation zones may form simultaneously and symmetrically about the principal strain axes. Dynamic analysis is necessary for a mechanical understanding of deformation, fluid flow, and mineralization and can be achieved through numerical modeling. The relationship between deformation (kinematics) and stress (dynamics) constitutes the rheology; rheological contrasts are critical for the localization of many deposits. Numerous gold deposits, especially the largest, have evidence for multiple mineralizing events that may be separated by tens to hundreds of millions of years. In these cases, reactivation of structures is common, and a range of orientations of preexisting structures are predicted to be reactivated, given that they are weaker than intact rock. Physical and chemical processes of mineralization can be integrated using a nonequilibrium thermodynamics approach. Hydrothermal gold deposits form in contractional, strike-slip, and extensional tectonic settings. However, there may be great variation in the spatial scale over which the tectonic setting applies, and tectonic settings may also change on rapid timescales, so that it is inadvisable to infer local tectonics from deposit-scale patterns, and vice versa. It is essential to place mineralizing events within a complete geologic history in order to distinguish pre- and postmineralizing structures from synmineralization deformation features.

Abstract Many ore-producing hydrothermal systems form within intrinsically low permeability host rocks during fracture-controlled flow in overpressured fluid regimes. The generation and localization of fracture-controlled fluid pathways in these systems involves dynamic coupling between fluid flow, fluid pressures, stress states, and deformation processes. In high fluid flux settings, fracture-controlled permeability enhancement is driven largely by fluid pressurization rather than by tectonic loading. The orientation of the stress field plays a critical role in governing the orientations of activated fractures. Permeability destruction by fracture sealing and cementation of fragmented rock is rapid relative to the lifetimes of hydrothermal systems. Accordingly, repeated regeneration of permeability is necessary to sustain the high fluid fluxes required for ore formation. The evolution of permeability is thus controlled by a dynamic competition between permeability enhancement processes and permeability destruction processes. During fluid pressurization, the failure modes, and hence growth of fluid pathways, are particularly sensitive to differential stress and the relative cohesive strengths of faults and intact rock. The fluid pressure, stress regimes, and mechanical properties of host rocks thus influence whether deposit styles are dominated by extension veins, fault-fill lodes in optimally oriented or unfavorably oriented faults, or lode development in viscous shear zones. Many fracture-controlled hydrothermal systems in intrinsically low permeability host rocks form at very low differential stresses and near-lithostatic fluid pressure regimes. Large-scale fluid injection experiments and contemporary seismicity in fluid-active settings indicate that the characteristic response to injection of large volumes of overpressured fluids into fault zones in low-permeability host rocks is earthquake swarm seismicity. Injection-driven swarm sequences enhance permeability via thousands of microseismic slip events over periods of days to many weeks. The accumulation of net slip in ore-hosting faults involves up to thousands of separate swarm sequences. Injection-driven earthquake swarms provide a very dynamic hydrothermal environment for ore formation. Incremental growth of ore deposits occurs during short bursts of high fluid flux during swarm sequences that are separated by long intervening periods in which there is little or no flow. Rapidly recurring slip events during swarms drive repeated and rapid changes in fluid pressures, flow rates, and stresses. If injection-driven growth of a fracture network breaches a hydrologic barrier between differently pressurized regimes, ensuing rapid depressurization can be a key driver of ore deposition. Although shear failure is an inherently dilatant process that increases permeability by up to many orders of magnitude, permeability distribution in fault zones is extremely heterogeneous. Permeability enhancement in active fault zones is favored by the presence of relatively competent host rocks. Permeability is particularly enhanced within some types of fault stepovers and bends. Fracture damage around rupture termination zones, fault branch lines, and fault intersections may also generate high fluid flux pathways. Directions of flow anisotropy along predominantly linear, high-dilation damage zones in faults are strongly influenced by fault kinematics. Permeability, fluid pressures, and flow rates evolve dynamically during injection-driven rupture sequences. Changes in flow rates and fluid pressures during the lead-up to a swarm, during rupture sequences themselves, and immediately after cessation of a swarm have impacts on ore deposition processes such as gradient reactions, fluid-rock reaction, phase separation, and fluid mixing. Fluid pressurization in the lead-up to a rupture sequence enhances within-fault permeability and may promote aseismic growth of extension fracture arrays. Repeated microseismic slip events dramatically and locally enhance permeability, cause sudden fluid pressure drops in the rupture zone, and transiently disrupt flow patterns. Rupture propagation is associated with coseismic dynamic fracture damage that further enhances permeability, especially in fault sidewalls and near rupture terminations. Immediate postrupture permeability enhancement can be associated with implosion processes and stress relaxation around rupture terminations. Major loss of permeability is associated with fracture sealing during rapid depressurization in the immediate aftermath of swarms. During successive rupture sequences, changes in permeability distributions in faults are expected to lead to complex changes in flow paths. Within individual faults, the highest fluid fluxes tend to be localized within long-lived fracture damage sites that are repeatedly reactivated over a substantial part of the lifetime of a hydrothermal system.

Abstract Epithermal deposits form in tectonically active arc settings and magmatic belts at shallow crustal levels as the products of focused hydrothermal fluid flow above, or lateral to, magmatic thermal and fluid sources. At a belt scale, their morphology, geometry, style of mineralization, and controls by major structural features are sensitive to variations in subduction dynamics and convergence angle in arc and postsubduction settings. These conditions dictate the local kinematics of associated faults, influence the style of associated volcanic activity, and may evolve temporally during the lifetime of hydrothermal systems. Extensional arc settings are frequently associated with arc-parallel low- to intermediate-sulfidation fault-fill and extensional vein systems, whereas a diversity of deposit types including intermediate-sulfidation, high-sulfidation, and porphyry deposits occur in contractional and transtensional arc settings. Extensional rift and postsubduction settings are frequently associated with rift-parallel low-sulfidation vein deposits and intermediate- and high-sulfidation systems, respectively. At a district scale, epithermal vein systems are typically associated with hydrothermal centers along regional fault networks, often coexistent with late fault-controlled felsic or intermediate-composition volcanic flow domes and dikes. Some districts form elliptical areas of parallel or branching extensional and fault-hosted veins that are not obviously associated with regional faults, although veins may parallel regional fault orientations. In regional strike-slip fault settings, dilational jogs and stepovers and fault terminations often control locations of epithermal vein districts, but individual deposits or ore zones are usually localized by normal and normal-oblique fault sets and extensional veins that are kinematically linked to the regional faults. Faults with greatest lateral extent and displacement magnitude within a district often contain the largest relative precious metal endowments, but displacement even on the most continuous ore-hosting faults in large epithermal vein districts seldom exceeds more than several hundred meters and is minimal in some districts that are dominated by extensional veins. Veins in epithermal districts typically form late in the displacement history of the host faults, when the faults have achieved maximum connectivity and structural permeability. While varying by district, common unidirectional vein-filling sequences in low- and intermediate-sulfidation veins comprise sulfide-bearing colloform-crustiform vein-fill, cockade, and layered breccia-fill stages, often with decreasing sulfide-sulfosalt ± selenide abundance, and finally late carbonate-fill; voluminous early pre-ore barren quartz ± sulfide fill is present in some districts. These textural phases record cycles associated with transient episodes of fluid flow triggered by fault rupture. The textural and structural features preserved in epithermal systems allow for a field-based evaluation of the kinematic evolution of the veins and controlling fault systems. This can be achieved by utilizing observations of (1) fault kinematic indicators, such as oblique cataclastic foliations and Riedel shear fractures, where they are preserved in silicified fault rock on vein margins, (2) lateral and vertical variations in structural style of veins based on their extensional, fault-dominated, or transitional character, (3) extensional vein sets with preferred orientations that form in the damage zones peripheral to, between, or at tips of fault-hosted veins, and (4) the influence of fault orientation and host-rock rheology and permeability on vein geometry and character. Collectively, these factors allow the prediction of structural settings with high fracture permeability and dilatancy, aiding in exploration targeting. Favorable structural settings for the development of ore shoots occur at geometric irregularities, orientation changes, and vein bifurcations formed early in the propagation history of the hosting fault networks. These sites include dilational, and locally contractional, steps and bends in strike-slip settings. In extensional settings, relay zones formed through the linkage of lateral fault tips, fault intersections, and dilational jogs associated with rheologically induced fault refraction across lithologic contacts are common ore shoot controls. Upward steepening, dilation, and horsetailing of extensional and oblique-extensional fault-hosted vein systems in near-surface environments are common and reflect decreasing lithostatic load and lower differential stress near surface. In these latter settings, the inflection line and intersections with branching parts of the vein system intersect in the σ 2 paleostress orientation, forming gently plunging linear zones of high structural permeability that coincide with areas of cyclical dilation at optimal boiling levels to enhance gangue and ore precipitation. The rheological character of pre- and syn-ore alteration also influences the structural character, morphology, and position of mineralized zones. Adularia-quartz-illite–dominant alteration, common to higher-temperature upflow zones central to intermediate- and low-sulfidation epithermal vein deposits, behaves as a brittle, competent medium enabling maintenance of fracture permeability. Lateral to and above these upflow zones, lower-temperature argillic alteration assemblages are less permeable and aid formation of fault gouge that further focuses fluid flow in higher-temperature upflow zones. Fault character varies spatially, from entirely breccia and gouge distally through progressively more hydrothermally lithified fault rocks and increasing vein abundance and diminishing fault-rock abundance proximal to ore shoots. In poorly lithified volcaniclastic rocks or phreatic breccia with high primary permeability, fault displacement may dissipate into broader fracture networks, resulting in more dispersed fluid flow that promotes the formation of disseminated deposits with low degrees of structural control. In disseminated styles of epithermal deposits, mineralization is often associated with synvolcanic growth faults or exploits dikes and phreatic breccia bodies, feeding tabular zones of advanced argillic and silicic alteration that form stratabound replacement mineralized zones. In lithocap environments common to high-sulfidation districts, early, laterally continuous, near-surface barren zones of advanced argillic alteration and silicification form near the paleowater table above magmatic-hydrothermal systems. In many high-sulfidation deposits, these serve as aquitards beneath which later hydrothermal fluids may localize mineralization zones within permeable stratigraphic horizons, although deeper mineralization may also be present within or emanating from faults unrelated to lithocap influence. Silicified lithocaps may contain zones with high secondary structural permeability that localize ore through the formation of zones of vuggy residual quartz and/or elevated fracture densities in the rheologically competent silicified base of the lithocap, often along or emanating laterally outward from ore-controlling faults. Syn-ore faults in such settings may form tabular, intensely silicified zones that extend downward below the lithocap.

Abstract Porphyry Cu deposits, the major source of many metals currently utilized by modern civilization, form via the interplay between magmatism, tectonism, and hydrothermal circulation at depths ranging from about 2 to as much as 10 km. These crustal-scale features require the deep crustal formation of a hydrous and oxidized magma, magma ascent along extant permeability fabrics to create an upper crustal convecting magma chamber, volatile saturation of the magma chamber, and finally the episodic escape of an ore-forming hydrothermal fluid and a phenocryst-rich magma into the shallow crustal environment. Three general fluid regimes are involved in the formation of porphyry Cu deposits. These include the deep magma ± volatile zone at lithostatic pressure, an overlying zone of transiently ascending magmatic-hydrothermal fluids that breaches ductile rock at temperatures ~700° to 400°C, and an upper brittle zone at temperatures <400°C characterized by hydrostatically pressured nonmagmatic and magmatic fluids. Critical structural steps include the formation of the magma chamber, magmatic vapor exsolution and collection of a hydrothermal fluid in cupola(s), and episodic hydrofracturing of the chamber roof in order to create the permeability that allows a hydrothermal fluid to rise along with a phenocryst-bearing magma. The interplay between stress produced by far-field tectonics and stress produced by buoyant magma and magmatic hydrothermal fluid creates the fracture permeability that extends from the cupola through an overlying ductile zone where temperatures exceed ~400°C into an overlying brittle zone where temperatures are less than ~400°C. As a consequence, during each fluid escape and magma intrusion event, the rising hydrothermal fluid ascends, depressurizes, cools, reacts with wall rocks, and precipitates quartz plus sulfide minerals, which seal the permeability fabric. A consistent vein geometry present in porphyry Cu deposits worldwide is formed by steeply dipping veins that have mutually crosscutting orientations. Two general orientations are common. The principal vein orientation generally consists of closely spaced sheeted veins with orientations reflecting the far-field stress. Subsidiary veins may be orthogonal to the main vein orientation as radial or concentric veins that reflect magma expansion and extensional strain in the wall rocks as they are stretched by ascent of the buoyant magma and fluids. Episodic magmatic-hydrothermal fluid-driven hydrofracturing creates permeability that is commonly destroyed, as well as locally enhanced, by vein and wall-rock mineral precipitation or dissolution and by wall-rock hydrothermal alteration, depending upon fluid and host-rock compositions. The pulsing character of porphyry Cu magmatic-hydrothermal systems, in part produced by permeability creation and destruction, creates polyphase overprinted intrusive complexes, associated vein networks, and alteration mineralogy that reflects temporal temperature fluctuations beginning at magma temperatures but continuing to low temperatures. Temperature oscillations locally allow external nonmagmatic fluids to access principally the marginal areas but also in some cases the center of the porphyry Cu ore zone at ~<400°C between porphyry dike emplacement events. Over time, the upper part of the source magma chamber at depth cools and crystallizes downward and is accompanied by diminishing magmatic fluid input upward, leading to cooling and isothermal collapse of the porphyry system. Cooling permits the access of external circulating groundwater into the waning magmatic-hydrothermal plume. Magmatic-hydrothermal fluids dominate at temperatures >400°C at pressures transient between lithostatic and superhydrostatic. The external, nonmagmatic saline formation waters or meteoric waters dominate the surrounding and overlying brittle crust at temperatures <400°C at hydrostatic pressures, except where they may mix with buoyantly rising magmatic-derived fluids. Exhumation requires substantial topographic relief, precipitation, and time (typically >1 m.y.) and may enhance overprinted relationships and telescope low-temperature on high-temperature hydrothermal alteration assemblages. Synmineral propagation of faults into or out of a porphyry Cu hydrothermal system in the brittle regime at <400°C can provide an escape channel through which a metalliferous fluid may depart, potentially to form lateral quartz-pyrite veins, overprinted polymetallic Cordilleran lode veins, or an epithermal precious metal-bearing deposit at shallow crustal depths.

Abstract Laterites are regoliths developed under tropical to subtropical conditions and are host to key deposit types, notably bauxites (major sources of Al, derived from weathering of aluminosilicate rocks) and Ni-Co laterites (derived from ultramafic rocks). Research on the western Tethys region, where bauxites and Ni-Co laterites developed during the Mesozoic and Cenozoic, probably peaking at the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum when geology, paleogeography, and climate were ideal for the deep weathering of favorable lithologies, is reported in this article. Bauxites were developed on the rocks forming the continental margins to the various branches of the Tethys Ocean and were already forming in the Triassic, whereas the Ni-Co laterites developed on fragments of obducted ophiolite from the Tethys Ocean, which were only uplifted and exposed to weathering after the Jurassic. Residual lateritic bauxites are known in the region but karst bauxites are much more common. Ni-Co laterites are found as residual profiles, ranging from oxide, to clay-silicate, to hydrous-silicate types, but are also represented by distinctive, extensively redeposited clay-oxide ores. This diversity of styles probably reflects differences in topography and uplift history because the deposits all formed within a similar, restricted climatic time window. The bauxite belt extends from Spain in the west, through the type locality of Les Baux in France, and intermittently through the Balkans, Greece, and Turkey to Iran and beyond. Bauxite resources in Europe constitute around 2% of the world’s current known stock. Significant Ni-Co laterites are found in a more restricted geographic area stretching from Serbia to Turkey. The bulk of both Al and Ni-Co production currently comes from Greece, today accounting for around 1% of world production of both Ni and bauxite, and with published resources on the order of 650 Mt @ >50% Al 2 O 3 ; other mines are located in Turkey, Albania, and Kosovo. Ferronickel plants are located in Greece, but also in the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, and Kosovo. The region has significant potential for the discovery of additional bauxite resources, although they would most likely be karst bauxites, less suited to large-scale mining efforts. Many undeveloped Ni-Co deposits are recorded in the region, with a recent focus to unlock the potential of oxide mineralization using novel hydrometallurgical technologies. Particularly noted is the potential for large low-grade redeposited lateritic Ni-Co-Fe deposits: Mokra Gora in Serbia, for example, has a resource of more than 1 Gt @ 0.7% Ni and 0.05% Co.

Abstract As an outcome of the European Science Foundation scientific programme, GEODE, on geodynamics and ore deposit evolution, this book examines the underlying geodynamic processes that lead to the formation of ore deposits in order to discover what controls the timing and location of major ore deposits in an evolving orogen. A collection of 19 research papers examines various aspects of ore genesis in the context of the geodynamic processes occurring within an evolving orogen. Although the majority of papers relate to Europe, their findings have a global significance for metallogenesis. The book will be of interest to all those involved in research or mineral exploration concerned with metallogenesis. In addition, ore deposits provide new evidence about magmatism associated with transient, rapid changes in plate motions and subduction processes in unusual tectonic settings, and are therefore of interest to those involved in both the magmatic and tectonic processes of orogenesis.