Abstract Detailed geologic mapping and new SHRIMP (sensitive high-resolution ion microprobe) U-Pb zircon, Ar/Ar, Lu-Hf, 14 C, luminescence (optically stimulated), thermochronology (fission-track), and palynology reveal the complex Mesoproterozoic to Quaternary geology along the ~350 km length of the Blue Ridge Parkway in Virginia. Traversing the boundary of the central and southern Appalachians, rocks along the parkway showcase the transition from the para-autochthonous Blue Ridge anticlinorium of northern and central Virginia to the allochthonous eastern Blue Ridge in southern Virginia. From mile post (MP) 0 near Waynesboro, Virginia, to ~MP 124 at Roanoke, the parkway crosses the unconformable to faulted boundary between Mesoproterozoic basement in the core of the Blue Ridge anticlinorium and Neoproterozoic to Cambrian metasedimentary and metavolcanic cover rocks on the western limb of the structure. Mesoproterozoic basement rocks comprise two groups based on SHRIMP U-Pb zircon geochronology: Group I rocks (1.2-1.14 Ga) are strongly foliated orthogneisses, and Group II rocks (1.08-1.00 Ga) are granitoids that mostly lack obvious Mesoproterozoic deformational features. Neoproterozoic to Cambrian cover rocks on the west limb of the anticlinorium include the Swift Run and Catoctin Formations, and constituent formations of the Chilhowee Group. These rocks unconformably overlie basement, or abut basement along steep reverse faults. Rocks of the Chilhowee Group are juxtaposed against Cambrian rocks of the Valley and Ridge province along southeast- and northwest-dipping, high-angle reverse faults. South of the James River (MP 64), Chilhowee Group and basement rocks occupy the hanging wall of the nearly flat-lying Blue Ridge thrust fault and associated splays. South of the Red Valley high-strain zone (MP 144.5), the parkway crosses into the wholly allochthonous eastern Blue Ridge, comprising metasedimentary and meta-igneous rocks assigned to the Wills Ridge, Ashe, and Alligator Back Formations. These rocks are bound by numerous faults, including the Rock Castle Creek fault that separates Ashe Formation rocks from Alligator Back Formation rocks in the core of the Ararat River synclinorium. The lack of unequivocal paleontologic or geochronologic ages for any of these rock sequences, combined with fundamental and conflicting differences in tectonogenetic models, compound the problem of regional correlation with Blue Ridge cover rocks to the north. The geologic transition from the central to southern Appalachians is also marked by a profound change in landscape and surficial deposits. In central Virginia, the Blue Ridge consists of narrow ridges that are held up by resistant but contrasting basement and cover lithologies. These ridges have shed eroded material from their crests to the base of the mountain fronts in the form of talus slopes, debris flows, and alluvial-colluvial fans for perhaps 10 m.y. South of Roanoke, however, ridges transition into a broad hilly plateau, flanked on the east by the Blue Ridge escarpment and the eastern Continental Divide. Here, deposits of rounded pebbles, cobbles, and boulders preserve remnants of ancestral west-flowing drainage systems. Both bedrock and surficial geologic processes provide an array of economic deposits along the length of the Blue Ridge Parkway corridor in Virginia, including base and precious metals and industrial minerals. However, common stone was the most important commodity for creating the Blue Ridge Parkway, which yielded building stone for overlooks and tunnels, or crushed stone for road base and pavement.

ABSTRACT The Marias River canyon in north-central Montana, incised into Upper Cretaceous strata of the Great Plains during latest Pleistocene to Holocene time, served as a locus of human activity tied to the unique floral and faunal resources it provided ancient peoples. Erosion of the main canyon walls resulted in deposition of tributary junction alluvial fans characterized by debris-flow and hyperconcentrated flow sediment transport processes where side canyons emerged onto the alluvial valley floor. These alluvial-fan deposits preserve Late Precontact archaeological remains accessible due to their postburial exposure where partially eroded by the meandering channel of the Marias River (Goose Bill site complex). Archaeological materials are also preserved high on the dissected canyon walls where movement of hillslope sediment and colluvium by sheetwash led to their burial (Sparrowhawk site). Deposition of sediment of contrasting physical attributes (grain size, sorting, clay mineral content) within the canyon influences soil substrate properties, favoring growth of specialized plant communities in both alluvial-fan and fluvial environments. These relations exemplify the strong geoecological connections among depositional environment and sediment characteristics, substrate properties, and vegetation community development. The plant communities, interacting in conjunction with the physical landscape, provided a range of habitats utilized by such large mammals as plains bison, Rocky Mountain elk, Audubon sheep, pronghorn, Rocky Mountain mule deer, and white-tailed deer. Four major bison bone layers, some including bison hair and other soft tissues, with associated stone arrow points and stone flakes (artifacts) and evidence of bone processing are preserved in alluvial-fan deposits exposed along the bank of the Marias River at the Goose Bill site complex. These relations illustrate: (1) human activities dating to ~100-595 yr B.P. (falling within the Late Precontact Period of regional archaeological prehistory) that reflect subsistence reliance on bison as a food source, (2) the importance of tributary alluvial fans proximal to canyon walls in preserving archaeological remains, and (3) the role of the meandering Marias River channel in destroying these deposits over a time period of <100 yr. Sediment deposition by overland flow higher up the canyon walls at the Sparrowhawk site preserves a somewhat older (710-830 yr B.P.) archaeological record suggestive of a broader spectrum of resource (food) processing spatially decoupled from an area of bison kill/death.

The new high-speed, high-capacity Treviglio-Brescia railway line is an integral part of the Trans-European Transport Network, the “Mediterranean Corridor,” and constitutes a critical stage in the construction of the high-speed, high-capacity Milan-Verona railway line, which extends a total of 140 km, 27 km of which have been in operation between Milan and Treviglio since 2007. The activities currently under way include the construction of a railway line covering a distance of ~52 km between Treviglio and Brescia, and the completion of a series of complementary projects to mitigate the interference with other infrastructures (e.g., canals, underground utilities) and new road systems. Geological investigations have been necessary during the course of the work, to manage excavations and excavated materials, to manage abandoned waste encountered along the line, and for remediation of contaminated sites. In addition to the characterization of the project area, data collected have contributed to the Environmental Monitoring Plan issued by the Consorzio Eni per l’Alta Velocità (CEPAV Due), which will monitor for potential environmental impacts caused by the execution of the project, particularly related to the soil, surface water, and groundwater, and the project measures needed to reduce environmental impact. This paper provides an overview of the activities carried out so far, as illustrated with some case studies.

Abstract This chapter explores people’s experience of the physical landscape in Scotland from the perspective of parallel developments in geological science, landscape aesthetics and tourism since the middle of the eighteenth century. It begins with tourism of awe, inspired by the Romantic movement and the excitement of discovering natural wonders promoted through contemporary literature and art during the development of modern geological science in the late eighteenth–early nineteenth centuries. Popular interest and engagement in geology declined with increasing scientific specialization, although the physical landscape continued to draw many visitors and provide creative inspiration for poets and artists. In the 1940s, the beginnings of statutory geoconservation were accompanied by renewed interest in raising public awareness of geology and the physical landscape mainly through didactic methods. More recently, exploration of the cultural links between geology and landscape is providing new opportunities for experiential re-engagement, a shift that recognizes the close links between people and the physical landscape, and one promoted through voluntary sector activity in geoconservation and the development of Geoparks. Rediscovering a sense of wonder and reconnecting with the landscape offer a means of reconciling the natural and cultural worlds and enabling wider public appreciation of geodiversity.

Abstract The current strong motivation to explore those traces of the archaeological and prehistoric human heritage that presently lie submerged on the continental shelf requires large-scale and precise underwater mapping. One Mediterranean sector deserving particular attention is the Sicily Channel, which is critical for a better understanding of the Africa–Europe migratory routes and early civilization patterns due to its large expanses of shallow seabed that were partially or totally exposed at times of lower relative sea levels. We have focused our attention on the submerged continental margin of the Maltese archipelago. A detailed bathymetric map is here presented, and is discussed in terms of features interpretable as former subaerial landforms and inundated by sea-level rise following the Last Glacial Maximum lowstand at approximately –130 m. Our datasets combine multibeam surveys, Light Detection And Ranging (LiDAR)-derived digital terrain models (DTMs), Chirp sub-bottom profiler records and bottom samples acquired between 2009 and 2012. The main features identified are former river incisions, alluvial plains, karst landscapes (sinkholes, limestone plateaus), slide deposits and palaeoshorelines. This study provides a detailed topographical reconstruction of the palaeolandscape of this key region that is relevant to any future archaeological exploration of the Maltese offshore area.

Abstract The career of the Austrian-born landscape painter Eugene von Guérard (1811–1901) was defined by his travels, which took him to Italy and Germany in the 1830s and 1840s and to Australia and New Zealand between 1852 and 1882. Today he is recognized as one of Australia’s greatest nineteenth-century landscape painters. His formative years coincided with the emergence of geology as an independent scientific discipline and a growing awareness in the wider community of the role played by volcanic activity and other geological processes in the formation of the Earth’s geomorphology. This new understanding was particularly pertinent to landscape painters, whose very subject was the form of the land; in Germany, where von Guérard trained and worked between 1838 and 1852, its relevance for landscape painters was emphasized by the influential natural scientist Alexander von Humboldt and the scientist, landscape painter and art theorist Carl Gustav Carus. They argued that the artist should paint from a geologically informed perspective. Von Guérard’s interest in volcanic geology was sparked by his experiences in southern Italy, consolidated in Germany on expeditions through the Harz and Eifel regions and then fully realized in response to the landscapes of southeastern Australia. Through his informed portrayal of sites of geological significance in each hemisphere and through the cultural value invested in them as a consequence of his depiction of them, von Guérard epitomized that recently conceived construct: the geotourist.

Abstract The first evidence of tourism on the Dutch coast can be found in drawings and etchings from the end of the sixteenth century. In this period Holland developed into one of the most urbanized regions of Europe. The interest in landscape originated in the towns. The first scenes depicted are those of mass tourism on the beach: sensation-mongers drawn to the beach by whales, sailing cars and departing kings and queens. Somewhat later the dune landscape became a main recreational focus, in which the physical aspects of the landscape were also appreciated. Around the town of Haarlem, individuals and small groups of people started exploring the dune landscape. In the wake of this new interest, landscape painting developed as an artistic genre. It became the most popular genre in the first half of the seventeenth century, and Haarlem developed as a centre for landscape painters. This paper discusses geomorphological features and geotourism engagement as depicted in several of the early etchings and landscape paintings.

Abstract In the summer of 1794 William George Maton, together with his friends Charles Hatchett and Thomas Rackett, embarked on a tour into Cornwall visiting the more southerly parts of Dorset and Devon en route . Rackett and Maton completed a second tour two years later, covering the rest of Dorset and Devon together with Somerset. An account of the tours was subsequently published by Maton, providing a contemporary description of SW England during the latter part of the eighteenth century. This was perhaps the first description of the region by scientifically aware travellers. They explored valleys, descended mines, visited smelters and collected minerals and must be regarded as among the earliest geotourists. Many sites which they visited, such as Roche Rock in Cornwall, Kent’s Cavern in Devon and Wookey Hole in Somerset, became major attractions for geoscientists in the following centuries. Discussions in the text suggest that the travellers looked at the rocks with neptunist eyes. Maton summarized the geological and mineralogical references on a map which used shading with lines rather than colour to differentiate individual strata. Although rudimentary and inaccurate, the map is of considerable historic importance.

Abstract The Sudetes is a mountain range in Central Europe and an area of remarkable geodiversity. In recent years, the area has been promoted as a geotourist destination and various initiatives aimed at better understanding geoheritage have been implemented. An interest in scenic landscapes is not new however, and dates back to the end of the eighteenth century. Two areas within the Sudetes are cradles of local nature-based tourism. These are the granite massif of the Karkonosze in the west and the sandstone stepped plateau of Broumov Highland and Stołowe Mountains in the central part of the Sudetes. In both, physical access to the key geosites was provided as early as in the nineteenth century, while an interpretation component was added in the early twentieth century. A side-effect of political change following the end of World War II was the neglect and dilapidation of many sites, as well as the disappearance of geoheritage appreciation from the collective social memory. In the last decade many of those early achievements were rediscovered and provided the foundations for contemporary activities. An educational component based on modern science is now included in the features which were discovered as tourist attractions long ago.

Abstract Loess is wind-blown sediment that covers extensive areas in the middle latitudes. Much of the loess in Eastern and Central–Eastern Europe has been redeposited by the River Danube and its tributaries. The case study area (Vojvodina region) encompasses the confluence area of the Danube, Sava and Tisa rivers. This region includes the most complete and the thickest loess–palaeosol sequences found in Europe, a valuable record of palaeo-climates over the past two million years only recognized in the closing decades of the twentieth century. Long before then however, several enthusiasts, engineers and travellers recognized and appreciated loess as a significant natural phenomenon. Among them was Luigi Ferdinando Marsigli (1658–1730) who gave the first scientific description of European loess in his outstanding multivolume work Danubius Pannonico Mysicus where he drew and explained notable loess–palaeosol exposures along the Danube River. Many other loess observations were also recorded by a number of international travellers, whose illustrated travelogues (mainly published in the nineteenth century) mentioned and illustrated loess observations along the Danube and its major tributaries. This chapter explores the interplay of scientific loess research and its geo-historical literary aspects as the foundations of modern loess geotourism.

Abstract This two-day field trip focuses on the geology and geomorphology of the Carolina Sandhills in Chesterfield County, South Carolina. This area is located in the updip portion of the U.S. Atlantic Coastal Plain province, supports an ecosystem of longleaf pine ( Pinus palustris ) and wiregrass ( Aristida stricta ), and contains three major geologic map units: (1) An ~60–120-m-thick unit of weakly consolidated sand, sandstone, mud, and gravel is mapped as the Upper Cretaceous Middendorf Formation and is interpreted as a fluvial deposit. This unit is capped by an unconformity, and displays reticulate mottling, plinthite, and other paleosol features at the unconformity. The Middendorf Formation is the largest aquifer in South Carolina. (2) A 0.3–10-m-thick unit of unconsolidated sand is mapped as the Quaternary Pinehurst Formation and is interpreted as deposits of eolian sand sheets and dunes derived via remobilization of sand from the underlying Cretaceous strata. This unit displays argillic horizons and abundant evidence of bioturbation by vegetation. (3) A <3-m-thick unit of sand, pebbly sand, sandy mud, and mud is mapped as Quaternary terrace deposits adjacent to modern drainages. In addition to the geologic units listed above, a prominent geomorphologic feature in the study area is a north-trending escarpment (incised by headwater streams) that forms a markedly asymmetric drainage divide. This drainage divide, as well as the Quaternary terraces deposits, are interpreted as evidence of landscape disequilibrium (possibly geomorphic responses to Quaternary climate changes).

Abstract Although modern geotourism, as a form of sustainable geoheritage tourism, was only recognized as such in the 1990s, its roots lie in the seventeenth century and the Grand Tour with its domestic equivalents. At that time, a few elite travellers recorded their experiences of landscapes, natural wonders, quarries and mines. Such travellers’ observations were supplemented by those of the antiquarians for much of the eighteenth century; at that century’s close, the first modern geologists were recording their observations. The nineteenth century witnessed an explosion in public interest and engagement with geology, and field excursions were provided by the burgeoning natural history and geology societies. By the close of the nineteenth century, the Romantic movement had successfully promoted wild landscapes to a newly expanding urban population. The development of the Grand Tour and the landscape aesthetic movements, the various influential institutions, key personalities and locations are considered insofar as they provide an overview of the background to historical geotourism. All are underpinned by a theoretical consideration of the geotourism paradigm and how geotourism historical studies can contextualize modern geotourism.

Abstract This paper outlines some significant visits made to north Norway by geologists and mountaineers from Britain and Ireland from the early to late nineteenth century. These visitors wrote up their travels and climbing experiences in a region in north Norway that was difficult to get to other than by sea: Øksfjordjøkelen and Lyngen. Early travellers revealed the sights of the fjord areas and thereby promoted the region for subsequent travellers. Leopold von Buch’s Travels though Norway and Lapland during the Years 1806, 1807, and 1808 probably prompted J. D. Forbes to visit and produce Norway and Its Glaciers and Archibald Geikie’s Geological Sketches at Home and Abroad as part of the contemporary discussions about the ‘glacial theory’. In the latter years of the nineteenth century the British climbers William Cecil Slingsby and George Hastings, with local climber Josef Caspari, explored the Lyngen Peninsula. Elizabeth Main (Mrs Aubrey Le Blond) also climbed in Lyngen. As well as providing written summaries of their exploits, the early explorers included photographs in their books. Some of these images are helpful in the reconstruction of the glacierized landscapes at the end of the Little Ice Age. It is suggested that present-day travellers might leave their observations available, in digital media, for future investigators.

Abstract This paper focuses on the continental shelf of NW Australia, and on models for change in littoral and offshore environments of relevance to human occupation over the last 50 kyr. Major island groups occur on the shelf including the Montebello and Barrow islands, and those of the Dampier Archipelago. At lowest sea level around 22 ka, these would have been uplands that then became progressively isolated by subsequent sea-level rise. By integrating archaeological and zooarchaeological records from excavations on these islands with the geology and geomorphology, we interpret palaeoeconomic resource potential in relation to changing sea level and coastline morphology. The preservation potential for submerged archaeological sites and features is also assessed. Current archaeological evidence from these offshore islands indicates that the submerged coastal landscape is likely to have been a potentially rich environment for resources and human occupation, even at times of lowest sea level and regional aridity. Should any exploration of submerged archaeology be carried out in this region, it is likely to be rewarding, offering unique insights into Late Pleistocene coastal occupation.

Abstract The knowledge that societies have of their geological environment and of the materials used in their heritage is of great importance for the sustainable use and conservation of traditional natural stone architecture. Similar weathering mechanisms occur in natural environments and the built environment and, in both cases, weathering may endanger both natural and built heritage. The Sierra de Guadarrama (Spanish Central System) is a privileged area in which natural and built heritage coexist. This paper describes an area of particular monumental and geological interest on the northern slopes of the Sierra de Guadarrama; its main aim is to propose an itinerary for members of the public, presented as a route through the area around Segovia, in which architecture/cultural heritage and an Earth sciences approach are brought together with an educational purpose. To this end, some connections are established between weathering forms in natural and built environments, as well as between the lithological characteristics of the rocks used in construction of ancient monuments in the area and the distribution of stresses and loads of walls.

Abstract It is only in the last 100 years or so that most of Britain has been covered by accurate, published, topographic and geological maps. Although travellers’ guides were available from the late seventeenth century, they lacked adequate maps. Whilst fairly accurate maps of the major roads were published in the early seventeenth century as strip maps, topographic maps were not generally available until the nineteenth century. Cartographers, usually when preparing county maps, struggled with the representation of Britain’s varied topography. In the nineteenth century, medium-scale (1-inch-to-the-mile) topographic maps initially developed through the agency of the prizes offered by the Royal Society of Arts but primarily due to the Ordnance Survey. Geological maps benefitted from improved base maps – those of John Cary and the Ordnance Survey. This paper especially explores and illustrates the development of maps and the role they played in the depiction and understanding of landscape and promotion of the major early geotourism region of the Peak District from 1780 to 1930.

Abstract This one-day field trip highlights research into the late Cenozoic evolution of topography in the Appalachian Mountains through geomorphic observations in the Cullasaja River basin, located in Macon County, North Carolina. Herein we present observations, data, and modeling results that challenge the paradigm of the Appalachians as a dead and slowly decaying orogen. Previous studies on the Cenozoic evolution of topography in the Appalachians are reviewed, showing that the post-orogenic history of eastern North America is best described by spatial and temporal changes in topographic relief, erosion rate, and sediment flux. When these data sets are placed in the context of other geologic and geophysical studies, they indicate that the Appalachians are a dynamic mountain range. We review previous studies in the Cullasaja basin that document and characterize the magnitude of base-level fall, relief production, and ensuing landscape response to such changes. These studies show that topographic relief within the basin was relatively subdued in the Miocene and subsequently has been rejuvenated ~160%, transforming the landscape into the rugged mountains we recognize today. We highlight hillslope and fluvial geomorphic observations that show landscape disequilibrium associated with ongoing adjustment to ~500 m of late Cenozoic base-level fall. Potential mechanisms for topographic rejuvenation of the Appalachians, such as climate change and epeirogenic uplift, are discussed using available field observations.

Abstract Gullies are common features throughout the southwestern United States including Army training facilities such as the Pinon Canyon Maneuver Site. These gullies have depths up to several meters, which can restrict the mobility of troops and vehicles during training exercises. They also have the potential to grow in size, which can degrade training lands. At the upstream end, gullies usually begin with an abrupt headwall, and in the downstream direction, gullies also tend to terminate abruptly. In this paper, we hypothesize that the small extent of convective storms and significant transmission losses in channels promote the downstream disappearance of gullies. The role of these factors is tested by applying a geomorphic model in which storms occur within circular portions of the simulation domain and channel flow is lost to seepage up to a specified infiltration or seepage capacity in each grid cell. The net effect of these processes is to reduce the sediment transport capacity in the downstream direction relative to the case with an infinite storm size and no channel losses. The reduced sediment capacity alters the relationship between slope and drainage area for topographies at equilibrium. In addition, limited storm sizes can also produce disconnected areas of incision within generally depositional portions of the landscape.

Abstract Biological soil crusts, composed of soil surfaces stabilized by a consortium of cyanobacteria, algae, fungi, lichens, and/or bryophytes, are common in most deserts and perform functions of primary productivity, nitrogen fixation, nutrient cycling, water redistribution, and soil stabilization. The crusts are highly susceptible to disturbance. The degree of perturbation is governed, at least in part, by the nature, intensity, and spatial and temporal distribution of the disturbance, as well as the soil type and soil moisture content at the time of disturbance. When disturbed, biological soil crusts lose their capacity to perform their ecological functions. Natural recovery of disturbed crusts can range from several years to millennia. Several strategies have been attempted to accelerate recovery of crusts. At present, artificial recovery is not economically feasible on large tracts of disturbed desert landscape. Management options available to the military on arid landscapes include: (1) eliminating or minimizing training in desert ecosystems, (2) avoiding critical seasons, (3) avoiding critical areas, (4) artificially restoring damaged crusts, and (5) considering desert training lands as “sacrifice areas.” Given the need to train in environments representative of the locations of many current and projected world conflicts, the first option is untenable. At this time, the most plausible alternative is to consider desert training lands as “sacrifice areas.” However, it is recommended that attempts be made to avoid critical seasons and areas inasmuch as logistically feasible, and that the military continue to support research into the development of cost-effective technologies for biological soil crust restoration.