Abstract This chapter examines the along-arc variation in the crustal structure of the Himalayan Mountain Range. Using results from published seismological studies, plus large teleseismic body-wave and surface-wave datasets which we analyse, we illustrate the along-arc variation by comparing the crustal properties beneath four representative areas of the Himalayan Mountain Range: the Western Syntaxis, the Garhwal–Kumaon, the Eastern Nepal–Sikkim, and the Bhutan–Northeastern India regions. The Western Syntaxis and the Bhutan–Northeastern India regions have a complicated structure extending far out in front of the main Range, whereas the Central Himalaya appear to have a much simpler structure. The deformation is more distributed beneath the western and eastern ends of the Range, but in general, the crust gradually thickens from c. 40 km on the southern side of the Foreland Basin to c. 80 km beneath the Tethys Himalaya. While the gross crustal structure of much of the Himalaya is becoming better known, our understanding of the internal structure of the Himalaya is still sketchy. The detailed geometry of the Main Himalayan Thrust and the role of the secondary structures on the underthrusting Indian Plate are yet to be characterized satisfactorily.

Abstract Crystalline klippen over the Lesser Himalayan Metasedimentary Sequence (LHMS) zone in the NW Himalaya have specific syn- and post-emplacement histories. These tectonics also provide a means to understand the driving factors responsible for the exhumation of the rocks of crystalline klippen during the Himalayan Orogeny. New meso- and microscale structural analyses, and thermochronological studies across the LHMS zone, Ramgarh Thrust (RT) sheet and Almora klippe in the eastern Kumaun region, NW Himalaya, indicate that the RT sheet and Almora klippe were a part of the Higher Himalayan Crystalline (HHC) of the Indian Plate which underwent at least one episode of pre-Himalayan deformation and polyepisodic Himalayan deformation in ductile and brittle–ductile regimes. The deformation temperature pattern within the Almora klippe records a normal thermal profile from its base to top but an inverted thermal profile from the base of Almora klippe down towards the LHMS zone. New fission-track data collected across the RT sheet and Almora klippe along Chalthi–Champawat–Pithoragarh traverse in the east Kumaun region document the exhumation of both units since Eocene times. Zircon fission-track (ZFT) ages from the Almora klippe range between 28.7 ± 2.4 and 17.6 ± 1.1 Ma, and from the RT sheet between 29.8 ± 1.6 and 22.6 ± 1.9 Ma; and the apatite fission-track (AFT) ages from the Almora klippe range between 15.1 ± 1.7 and 3.4 ± 0.5 Ma, and from the RT sheet between 8.7 ± 1.2 and 4.6 ± 0.6 Ma. The age pattern and diverse patterns of the exhumation rates reflect a clear tectonic signal in the RT sheet and the Almora klippe which acknowledge that the Cenozoic tectonics influenced the exhumation pattern in the Himalaya.

Abstract The present study reports and investigates ‘lazulite’ occurring in the vicinity of a highly tectonized zone of the Main Central Thrust (MCT) in the Himalaya. The azure blue lazulite, hosted in quartz veins, occurs in fractured Berinag quartzite, which forms the footwall of the MCT near Sobla village in NE Kumaun Himalaya, India. Lazulite was investigated using SEM-EDX, micro Raman spectroscopy, fluid inclusion microthermometry and electron probe microanalysis (EPMA). Lazulite contains inclusions of rutile and hematite and has Mg/(Mg+Fe) ratios of 0.86 to 0.90. The phosphorus in lazulite shows a negative trend with Mg+Al contents. This lazulite is an intermediate solid solution near the lazulite end-member with a cationic composition in the structural formula: Mg 0.81–0.89 Fe 0.10–0.13 Al 1.88–1.98 P 2.00–2.07 . Its composition in the lazulite–scorzalite stability field points to a higher temperature of its formation. Fluids trapped as inclusions in lazulite and the associated quartz are generally C–O–H fluid. The fluid inclusion isochors for lazulite, together with the temperature calculated for metamorphism of the equivalent structural level in the adjacent area suggest 500–600°C and 7.25 to 9.25 kbar, which match the peak metamorphic temperature–pressure derived elsewhere for the Higher Himalayan Crystallines. Moderately enriched δ D‰ values and H 2 O–CO 2 –low NaCl fluid suggest that water from a deep reservoir, more likely a metamorphic fluid, participated in lazulite formation. Classic sigmoidal fluid inclusions in lazulite reveal their development during MCT shearing, whereas the overpressured fluid inclusions suggest a post-lazulite uplift. The MCT lazulite is interpreted to have formed during Himalayan shearing and concurrent metamorphism. The present study also implies that this refractory mineral can sustain fluid inclusions within it against intense deformation conditions, such as in the MCT.

Recent recognition of the existence of a deep fault of regional dimension along the northern boundary of the Great Himalayan (Himadri) lithotectonic subprovince is a repudiation of the time-honored notion of the transition from high-grade metamorphics of the basement complex forming the Great Himalaya into the Phanerozoic fossiliferous sedimentary succession of the Tethyan domain. This plane of dislocation has attenuated and truncated basal Tethyan units (e.g., by the Malari Fault in Kumaun); it has disharmonically deformed or backfolded the lower Paleozoic formations (as discernible north of Nanda Devi in Kumaun and north of Kanjiroba-Annapurna in western Nepal); it has split the lithologic succession into a schuppen zone (as done by the Chomolungma/Main North Himalayan Thrust in the Sagarmatha [Everest] region in northeastern Nepal and by the Trans-Axial Fault in northwestern Sikkim); and it has caused considerable deformation, including mylonitization of the basement metamorphics, migmatites, and mid-Tertiary (28 to 18 Ma) granites that occur as concordant bodies and cross-cutting dikes. The Trans-Himadri Fault (T-HF) may represent the southernmost of the old normal faults in the continental-margin basin in the frontal part of the northward advancing Indian plate. This fault (which becomes a low-angle thrust in northeastern Nepal) was reactivated following the blocking of movements along the Indus-Tsangpo Suture Zone (ITSZ) and slowing down of sliding along the Main Central Thrust (MCT). The T-HF may therefore be accommodating a part of the convergence of the Indian and Asian plates. The domal structural architecture north of Annapurna, the pronounced upwarps of the metamorphic basement immediately to the south of the ITSZ in the Mansarovar region, and the faulted crystalline basement blocks and slices thrust northward in the Tso Morari area in Ladakh bear testimony to the blocking of movements and the consequent upwarping of the Indian crustal plate at its leading edge. The fall and then rise of the Moho in the Kashmir-Nanga Parbat-Pamir section and its abrupt deepening from 55 km under the Sagarmatha to 70 km a few tens of kilometers north, through to the Tibetan country, must be viewed in the context of postcollision, perhaps neotectonic, movements along the deep T-HF.