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NARROW
GeoRef Subject
-
all geography including DSDP/ODP Sites and Legs
-
Africa
-
Nubian Shield (1)
-
-
Asia
-
Arabian Peninsula
-
Arabian Shield (1)
-
-
Central Asia
-
Pamirs (1)
-
-
Far East
-
China
-
Tarim Platform (1)
-
Xizang China
-
Lhasa Block (3)
-
-
-
-
Himalayas
-
Garhwal Himalayas (3)
-
High Himalayan Crystallines (3)
-
Kumaun Himalayas (3)
-
Lesser Himalayas (4)
-
Nanga Parbat (29)
-
Zanskar Range (9)
-
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Indian Peninsula
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Afghanistan (1)
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Bhutan (2)
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Ganga Basin (1)
-
India
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Doda India
-
Kishtwar India (1)
-
-
Himachal Pradesh India (2)
-
Northeastern India
-
Assam India (1)
-
-
Rajasthan India
-
Aravalli Range (1)
-
-
Sikkim India (3)
-
Srinagar India (3)
-
Uttarakhand India
-
Garhwal Himalayas (3)
-
Garhwal India (1)
-
-
-
Indus Basin (2)
-
Indus Valley (4)
-
Jammu and Kashmir
-
Azad Kashmir Pakistan (8)
-
Jammu (7)
-
Kashmir (49)
-
Kashmir Valley (3)
-
Kishtwar India (1)
-
Ladakh (74)
-
Nanga Parbat (29)
-
Srinagar India (3)
-
-
Kohistan (13)
-
Nepal (4)
-
Pakistan
-
Azad Kashmir Pakistan (8)
-
North-West Frontier Pakistan
-
Hazara Pakistan (1)
-
Swat Pakistan (1)
-
-
Punjab Pakistan
-
Salt Range (1)
-
-
-
Potwar Plateau (1)
-
-
Indus River (10)
-
Indus-Yarlung Zangbo suture zone (15)
-
Karakoram (23)
-
Main Boundary Fault (2)
-
Main Central Thrust (7)
-
Qiangtang Terrane (2)
-
Tibetan Plateau (5)
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Australasia
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New Zealand (1)
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Commonwealth of Independent States
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Armenia (1)
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Eurasia (1)
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Europe
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Armenia (1)
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Southern Europe
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Greece
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Greek Aegean Islands
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Cyclades
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Naxos (1)
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-
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Western Europe
-
Scandinavia
-
Norway
-
Tunsbergdalsbreen (1)
-
-
-
-
-
Indian Ocean
-
Arabian Sea
-
Indus Fan (2)
-
-
-
International Ocean Discovery Program
-
Expedition 355
-
IODP Site U1456 (1)
-
IODP Site U1457 (1)
-
-
-
Mediterranean region
-
Aegean Islands
-
Greek Aegean Islands
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Cyclades
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Naxos (1)
-
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-
-
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South Island (1)
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Southern Alps (1)
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United States
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Sevier orogenic belt (1)
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USSR (1)
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commodities
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construction materials
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building stone (2)
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gems (1)
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mineral deposits, genesis (2)
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petroleum
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natural gas (1)
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water resources (1)
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elements, isotopes
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boron (1)
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carbon
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C-13/C-12 (1)
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C-14 (2)
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organic carbon (1)
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chemical ratios (2)
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halogens
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bromine (1)
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chlorine (1)
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fluorine (1)
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iodine (1)
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hydrogen (1)
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isotope ratios (12)
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isotopes
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radioactive isotopes
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Al-26 (1)
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Be-10 (7)
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C-14 (2)
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K-40 (1)
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Pb-206/Pb-204 (2)
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Pb-207/Pb-204 (2)
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Pb-208/Pb-204 (2)
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Pb-210 (1)
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Ra-226 (1)
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Rb-87/Sr-86 (2)
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Sm-147/Nd-144 (1)
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Th-232 (1)
-
-
stable isotopes
-
C-13/C-12 (1)
-
Hf-177/Hf-176 (3)
-
N-15/N-14 (1)
-
Nd-144/Nd-143 (7)
-
Pb-206/Pb-204 (2)
-
Pb-207/Pb-204 (2)
-
Pb-207/Pb-206 (1)
-
Pb-208/Pb-204 (2)
-
Rb-87/Sr-86 (2)
-
Sm-147/Nd-144 (1)
-
Sr-87/Sr-86 (8)
-
-
-
Lu/Hf (1)
-
metals
-
actinides
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thorium
-
Th-232 (1)
-
-
-
alkali metals
-
potassium
-
K-40 (1)
-
-
rubidium
-
Rb-87/Sr-86 (2)
-
-
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alkaline earth metals
-
beryllium
-
Be-10 (7)
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-
calcium (2)
-
magnesium (1)
-
radium
-
Ra-226 (1)
-
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strontium
-
Rb-87/Sr-86 (2)
-
Sr-87/Sr-86 (8)
-
-
-
aluminum
-
Al-26 (1)
-
-
hafnium
-
Hf-177/Hf-176 (3)
-
-
lead
-
Pb-206/Pb-204 (2)
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Pb-207/Pb-204 (2)
-
Pb-207/Pb-206 (1)
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Pb-208/Pb-204 (2)
-
Pb-210 (1)
-
-
platinum group (1)
-
rare earths
-
neodymium
-
Nd-144/Nd-143 (7)
-
Sm-147/Nd-144 (1)
-
-
samarium
-
Sm-147/Nd-144 (1)
-
-
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-
nitrogen
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N-15/N-14 (1)
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noble gases
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radon (2)
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-
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fossils
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Chordata
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Vertebrata
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Pisces (1)
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Tetrapoda
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Mammalia
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Theria
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Eutheria
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Perissodactyla
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Ceratomorpha (1)
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Graptolithina
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Monograptina
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Monograptus (1)
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ichnofossils (1)
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Invertebrata
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Arthropoda
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Ostracoda
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Podocopida
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Candona (1)
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Trilobitomorpha
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Trilobita (2)
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Brachiopoda (2)
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Mollusca
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Bivalvia (1)
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Gastropoda (1)
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Porifera
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Demospongea (1)
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Protista
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Foraminifera
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Rotaliina
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Globigerinacea
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Globotruncanidae
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Globotruncana (1)
-
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-
-
-
Radiolaria (1)
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-
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microfossils
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Conodonta (1)
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palynomorphs
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miospores
-
pollen (3)
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Plantae
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algae (1)
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Pteridophyta
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Lycopsida (1)
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-
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thallophytes (1)
-
-
geochronology methods
-
(U-Th)/He (4)
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Ar/Ar (12)
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exposure age (5)
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fission-track dating (5)
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He/He (1)
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K/Ar (2)
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Lu/Hf (1)
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Nd/Nd (1)
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optical mineralogy (1)
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optically stimulated luminescence (4)
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paleomagnetism (3)
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Pb/Th (1)
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Rb/Sr (3)
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Sm/Nd (4)
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Sr/Sr (1)
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thermochronology (6)
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thermoluminescence (1)
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U/Pb (20)
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U/Th/Pb (3)
-
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geologic age
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Cenozoic
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Quaternary
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Siwalik System (4)
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Tertiary
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lower Tertiary (1)
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middle Tertiary (1)
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Miocene
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lower Miocene (1)
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middle Miocene (1)
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upper Miocene (1)
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Pliocene
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Gauss Chron (1)
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Paleogene
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Eocene (9)
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Oligocene
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upper Oligocene (3)
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Paleocene
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lower Paleocene (1)
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upper Cenozoic
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Karewa Group (1)
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Mesozoic
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Bela Ophiolites (1)
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Cretaceous
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Lower Cretaceous
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Albian (1)
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Upper Cretaceous
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Campanian (1)
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-
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Jurassic
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Middle Jurassic (1)
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Upper Jurassic (1)
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Triassic
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Lower Triassic
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Permian-Triassic boundary (1)
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MIS 5 (1)
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Paleozoic
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Cambrian
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Upper Cambrian (1)
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Carboniferous
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Middle Mississippian
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Upper Carboniferous (1)
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Devonian (1)
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Ordovician (4)
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Permian
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Upper Permian
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Permian-Triassic boundary (1)
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-
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Silurian
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Upper Silurian (1)
-
-
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Precambrian
-
upper Precambrian
-
Proterozoic
-
Mesoproterozoic (1)
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Neoproterozoic (1)
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Paleoproterozoic (2)
-
-
-
-
-
igneous rocks
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igneous rocks
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plutonic rocks
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diabase
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diorites
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gabbros (2)
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A-type granites (1)
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leucogranite (7)
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S-type granites (1)
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granodiorites (2)
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pegmatite (5)
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ultramafics
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peridotites
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harzburgite (1)
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pyroxenite (1)
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volcanic rocks
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andesites (2)
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basalts
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mid-ocean ridge basalts (1)
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ocean-island basalts (1)
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trap rocks (1)
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pyroclastics
-
tuff (1)
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rhyolites (1)
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ophiolite (10)
-
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metamorphic rocks
-
metamorphic rocks
-
amphibolites (2)
-
eclogite (10)
-
gneisses
-
augen gneiss (1)
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granite gneiss (1)
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orthogneiss (2)
-
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granulites (2)
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marbles (2)
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metaigneous rocks
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metabasite (1)
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metagranite (1)
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serpentinite (2)
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metasedimentary rocks
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metapelite (1)
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metasomatic rocks
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serpentinite (2)
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migmatites (7)
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mylonites (5)
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schists
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ophiolite (10)
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minerals
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carbonates
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calcite (1)
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dolomite (1)
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halides
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fluorides
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topaz (1)
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native elements
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diamond (1)
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oxides
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hematite (1)
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phosphates
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apatite (6)
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eosphorite (1)
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monazite (4)
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silicates
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chain silicates
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amphibole group
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clinoamphibole
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glaucophane (1)
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hornblende (1)
-
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pyroxene group
-
clinopyroxene
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omphacite (1)
-
-
-
-
framework silicates
-
feldspar group
-
alkali feldspar
-
K-feldspar (2)
-
-
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myrmekite (1)
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silica minerals
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coesite (2)
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quartz (2)
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orthosilicates
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nesosilicates
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garnet group
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majorite (1)
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olivine group
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olivine (1)
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sillimanite (1)
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staurolite (1)
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titanite (1)
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topaz (1)
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zircon group
-
zircon (19)
-
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-
-
ring silicates
-
emerald (1)
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tourmaline group
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dravite (1)
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elbaite (1)
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schorl (2)
-
-
-
sheet silicates
-
mica group
-
biotite (3)
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lepidolite (1)
-
muscovite (2)
-
-
-
-
tungstates (1)
-
-
Primary terms
-
absolute age (38)
-
Africa
-
Nubian Shield (1)
-
-
Asia
-
Arabian Peninsula
-
Arabian Shield (1)
-
-
Central Asia
-
Pamirs (1)
-
-
Far East
-
China
-
Tarim Platform (1)
-
Xizang China
-
Lhasa Block (3)
-
-
-
-
Himalayas
-
Garhwal Himalayas (3)
-
High Himalayan Crystallines (3)
-
Kumaun Himalayas (3)
-
Lesser Himalayas (4)
-
Nanga Parbat (29)
-
Zanskar Range (9)
-
-
Indian Peninsula
-
Afghanistan (1)
-
Bhutan (2)
-
Ganga Basin (1)
-
India
-
Doda India
-
Kishtwar India (1)
-
-
Himachal Pradesh India (2)
-
Northeastern India
-
Assam India (1)
-
-
Rajasthan India
-
Aravalli Range (1)
-
-
Sikkim India (3)
-
Srinagar India (3)
-
Uttarakhand India
-
Garhwal Himalayas (3)
-
Garhwal India (1)
-
-
-
Indus Basin (2)
-
Indus Valley (4)
-
Jammu and Kashmir
-
Azad Kashmir Pakistan (8)
-
Jammu (7)
-
Kashmir (49)
-
Kashmir Valley (3)
-
Kishtwar India (1)
-
Ladakh (74)
-
Nanga Parbat (29)
-
Srinagar India (3)
-
-
Kohistan (13)
-
Nepal (4)
-
Pakistan
-
Azad Kashmir Pakistan (8)
-
North-West Frontier Pakistan
-
Hazara Pakistan (1)
-
Swat Pakistan (1)
-
-
Punjab Pakistan
-
Salt Range (1)
-
-
-
Potwar Plateau (1)
-
-
Indus River (10)
-
Indus-Yarlung Zangbo suture zone (15)
-
Karakoram (23)
-
Main Boundary Fault (2)
-
Main Central Thrust (7)
-
Qiangtang Terrane (2)
-
Tibetan Plateau (5)
-
-
Australasia
-
New Zealand (1)
-
-
biogeography (2)
-
boron (1)
-
carbon
-
C-13/C-12 (1)
-
C-14 (2)
-
organic carbon (1)
-
-
catalogs (1)
-
Cenozoic
-
Quaternary
-
Holocene
-
upper Holocene (1)
-
-
Pleistocene
-
Matuyama Chron (1)
-
upper Pleistocene (1)
-
-
upper Quaternary (3)
-
-
Siwalik System (4)
-
Tertiary
-
lower Tertiary (1)
-
middle Tertiary (1)
-
Neogene
-
Miocene
-
lower Miocene (1)
-
middle Miocene (1)
-
upper Miocene (1)
-
-
Pliocene
-
Gauss Chron (1)
-
-
-
Paleogene
-
Eocene (9)
-
Oligocene
-
upper Oligocene (3)
-
-
Paleocene
-
lower Paleocene (1)
-
-
-
-
upper Cenozoic
-
Karewa Group (1)
-
-
-
chemical analysis (1)
-
Chordata
-
Vertebrata
-
Pisces (1)
-
Tetrapoda
-
Mammalia
-
Theria
-
Eutheria
-
Perissodactyla
-
Ceratomorpha (1)
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
climate change (1)
-
construction materials
-
building stone (2)
-
-
continental drift (3)
-
crust (27)
-
crystal chemistry (2)
-
crystal structure (2)
-
dams (2)
-
data processing (3)
-
Deep Sea Drilling Project
-
Leg 23
-
DSDP Site 224 (1)
-
-
-
deformation (14)
-
earthquakes (18)
-
ecology (1)
-
economic geology (2)
-
Eurasia (1)
-
Europe
-
Armenia (1)
-
Southern Europe
-
Greece
-
Greek Aegean Islands
-
Cyclades
-
Naxos (1)
-
-
-
-
-
Western Europe
-
Scandinavia
-
Norway
-
Tunsbergdalsbreen (1)
-
-
-
-
-
faults (45)
-
folds (12)
-
foliation (5)
-
foundations (1)
-
fractures (1)
-
gems (1)
-
geochemistry (11)
-
geochronology (3)
-
geodesy (3)
-
geomorphology (13)
-
geophysical methods (5)
-
glacial geology (7)
-
Graptolithina
-
Graptoloidea
-
Monograptina
-
Monograptus (1)
-
-
-
-
ground water (2)
-
heat flow (3)
-
hydrogen (1)
-
hydrology (5)
-
ichnofossils (1)
-
igneous rocks
-
plutonic rocks
-
diabase
-
tholeiitic dolerite (1)
-
-
diorites
-
tonalite (1)
-
-
gabbros (2)
-
granites
-
A-type granites (1)
-
leucogranite (7)
-
S-type granites (1)
-
-
granodiorites (2)
-
pegmatite (5)
-
ultramafics
-
peridotites
-
harzburgite (1)
-
-
pyroxenite (1)
-
-
-
volcanic rocks
-
andesites (2)
-
basalts
-
mid-ocean ridge basalts (1)
-
ocean-island basalts (1)
-
trap rocks (1)
-
-
pyroclastics
-
tuff (1)
-
-
rhyolites (1)
-
-
-
inclusions
-
fluid inclusions (3)
-
-
Indian Ocean
-
Arabian Sea
-
Indus Fan (2)
-
-
-
intrusions (22)
-
Invertebrata
-
Arthropoda
-
Mandibulata
-
Crustacea
-
Ostracoda
-
Podocopida
-
Cypridocopina
-
Cyprididae
-
Candona (1)
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Trilobitomorpha
-
Trilobita (2)
-
-
-
Brachiopoda (2)
-
Mollusca
-
Bivalvia (1)
-
Gastropoda (1)
-
-
Porifera
-
Demospongea (1)
-
-
Protista
-
Foraminifera
-
Rotaliina
-
Globigerinacea
-
Globotruncanidae
-
Globotruncana (1)
-
-
-
-
-
Radiolaria (1)
-
-
-
isotopes
-
radioactive isotopes
-
Al-26 (1)
-
Be-10 (7)
-
C-14 (2)
-
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Jammu and Kashmir
First report of Acanthochaetetes (Porifera: Demospongiae) from the Cretaceous Khalsi Formation, Ladakh Himalaya, India
Jurassic–Cretaceous arc magmatism along the Shyok–Bangong Suture of NW Himalaya: formation of the peri-Gondwana basement to the Ladakh Arc
Modern pollen and non-pollen palynomorphs along an altitudinal transect in Jammu and Kashmir (Western Himalaya), India
ABSTRACT The southeast Ladakh (India) area displays one of the best-preserved ophiolite sections in this planet, in places up to 10 km thick, along the southern bank of the Indus River. Recently, in situ, ultrahigh-pressure (UHP) mineralogical evidence from the mantle transition zone (MTZ; ~410–660 km) with diamond and reduced fluids were discovered from two peridotite bodies in the basal mantle part of this Indus ophiolite. Ultrahigh-pressure phases were also found by early workers from podiform chromitites of another coeval Neo-Tethyan ophiolite in southern Tibet. However, the MTZ phases in the Indus ophiolite are found in silicate peridotites, but not in metallic chromitites, and the peridotitic UHP phases show systematic and contiguous phase transitions from the MTZ to shallower depth, unlike the discrete UHP inclusions, all in Tibetan chromitites. We observe consistent change in oxygen fugacity ( f O 2 ) and fluid composition from (C-H + H 2 ) to (CO 2 + H 2 O) in the upwelling peridotitic mantle, causing melting to produce mid-ocean-ridge basalt (MORB). At shallow depths (<100 km) the free water stabilizes into hydrous phases, such as pargasitic amphibole, capable of storing water and preventing melting. Our discoveries provide unique insights into deep sub-oceanic-mantle processes, and link deep-mantle upwelling and MORB genesis. Moreover, the tectonic setting of Neo-Tethyan ophiolites has been a difficult problem since the birth of the plate-tectonics concept. This problem for the origin of ophiolites in mid-ocean-ridge versus supra-subduction zone settings clearly confused the findings from Indus ophiolites. However, in this contribution, we provide arguments in favor of mid-ocean-ridge origin for Indus ophiolite. In addition, we venture to revisit the “historical contingency” model of E.M. Moores and others for Neo-Tethyan ophiolite genesis based on the available evidence and have found that our new results strongly support the “historical contingency” model.
Construction of the Lesser Himalayan–Subhimalayan thrust belt: The primary driver of thickening, exhumation, and high elevations in the Himalayan orogen since the middle Miocene
Late Pleistocene–Holocene flood history, flood-sediment provenance and human imprints from the upper Indus River catchment, Ladakh Himalaya
How Himalayan collision stems from subduction
Petrological and geochemical characterization of the arc-related Suru–Thasgam ophiolitic slice along the Indus Suture Zone, Ladakh Himalaya
Detrital zircon provenance of the Indus Group, Ladakh, NW India: Implications for the timing of the India-Asia collision and other syn-orogenic processes
Surface pollen distribution from Akhnoor of Jammu District (Jammu and Kashmir), India: implications for the interpretation of fossil pollen records
Closure of India–Asia collision margin along the Shyok Suture Zone in the eastern Karakoram: new geochemical and zircon U–Pb geochronological observations
Timing of subduction initiation, arc formation, ophiolite obduction and India–Asia collision in the Himalaya
Abstract Reconstruction of the Western Himalaya requires three subduction systems operating beneath the Spong arc, Dras–Kohistan arc and the Asian continent during the Late Cretaceous–Paleocene. The timing of the closure of the Neo-Tethys Ocean along the Indus Suture Zone (ISZ) in Ladakh and south Tibet has been proposed to be as old as c. 65 Ma and as young as c. 37 Ma. The definition of the India–Asia collision can span >15 myr from the first touching of Indian continental crust with Asian crust to the final marine sedimentation between the two plates. There is good geological evidence for a Late Cretaceous–Early Paleocene phase of folding, thrusting and crustal thickening of Indian Plate shelf carbonates associated with obduction of ophiolites. There is no geological evidence of any oceanic ‘Greater Indian Basin’ separating the northern Tethyan and Greater Himalaya from India. There is clear evidence to support final ending of marine sedimentation along the ISZ at 50 Ma (planktonic foraminifera zone P7–P8). There is no evidence for diachroneity of collision along the Pakistan–Ladakh–South Tibet Himalaya. The timing of ultrahigh-pressure metamorphism cannot be used to constrain India–Asia collision, and the timing of high-grade kyanite- and sillimanite-grade metamorphism along the Greater Himalaya can only give a minimum age of collision.
The plutonic crust of Kohistan and volcanic crust of Kohistan–Ladakh, north Pakistan/India: lessons learned for deep and shallow arc processes
Abstract The Kohistan–Ladakh terrane, northern Pakistan/India, offers a unique insight into whole-arc processes. This research review presents summaries of fundamental crustal genesis and evolution models. Earlier work focused on arc sequence definition. Later work focused on holistic petrogenesis. A new model emerges of an unusually thick ( c. 55 km) arc with a c. 30 km-thick batholith. Volatile-rich, hornblende ± garnet ± sediment assimilation-controlled magmatism is predominant. The thick batholith has a complementary mafic–ultramafic residue. Kohistan crustal SiO 2 contents are estimated at >56%. The new-Kohistan, silicic-crust model contrasts with previous lower SiO 2 estimates ( c. 51% SiO 2 crust) and modern arcs that imply <35 km crustal thicknesses and arc batholith thicknesses of c. 7 km. A synthetic overview of Kohistan–Ladakh volcanic rocks presents a model of an older, cleaved/deformed Cretaceous volcanic system at least 800 km across strike. The Jaglot–Chalt–Dras–Shyok volcanics exhibit predominant tholeiitic-calc-alkaline signatures, with a range of arc-related facies/tectonic settings. A younger, post-collisional, Tertiary silicic volcanic system (the Shamran–Dir–Dras-2–Khardung volcanics) lie unconformably upon Cretaceous basement, and erupted within an intra-continental tectonic setting. Kohistan–Ladakh tectonic model controversies remain. In essence, isotope-focused researchers prefer later (Tertiary) collisions, whilst structural field-geology-orientated researchers prefer an older (Cretaceous) age for the Northern/Shyok Suture.
The isotopic evolution of the Kohistan Ladakh arc from subduction initiation to continent arc collision
Abstract Magmatic arcs associated with subduction zones are the dominant active locus of continental crust formation, and evolve in space and time towards magmatic compositions comparable to that of continental crust. Accordingly, the secular evolution of magmatic arcs is crucial to the understanding of crust formation processes. In this paper we present the first comprehensive U–Pb, Hf, Nd and Sr isotopic dataset documenting c. 120 myr of magmatic evolution in the Kohistan-Ladakh paleo-island arc. We found a long-term magmatic evolution that is controlled by the overall geodynamic of the Neo-Tethys realm. Apart from the post-collisionnal melts, the intra-oceanic history of the arc shows two main episodes (150–80 Ma and 80–50 Ma) of distinct geochemical signatures involving the slab and the sub-arc mantle components that are intimately linked to the slab dynamics.
Eclogites and other high-pressure rocks in the Himalaya: a review
Abstract Himalayan high-pressure metamorphic rocks are restricted to three environments: the suture zone; close to the suture zone; and (mostly) far (>100 km) from the suture zone. In the NW Himalaya and South Tibet, Cretaceous-age blueschists (glaucophane-, lawsonite- or carpholite-bearing schists) formed in the accretionary wedge of the subducting Neo-Tethys. Microdiamond and associated phases from suture-zone ophiolites (Luobusa and Nidar) are, however, unrelated to Himalayan subduction–collision processes. Deeply subducted and rapidly exhumed Indian Plate basement and cover rocks directly adjacent to the suture zone enclose eclogites of Eocene age, some coesite-bearing (Kaghan/Neelum and Tso Morari), formed from Permian Panjal Trap, continental-type, basaltic magmatic rocks. Eclogites with a granulite-facies overprint, yielding Oligocene–Miocene ages, occur in the anatectic cordierite ± sillimanite-grade Indian Plate mostly significantly south of the suture zone (Kharta/Ama Drime/Arun, north Sikkim and NW Bhutan) but also directly at the suture zone at Namche Barwa. The sequence carpholite-, coesite-, kyanite- and cordierite-bearing rocks of these different units demonstrates the transition from oceanic subduction to continental collision via continental subduction. The granulitized eclogites in anatectic gneisses preserve evidence of former thick crust as in other wide hot orogens, such as the European Variscides.
Tectonic evolution of the Himalayan syntaxes: the view from Nanga Parbat
Abstract Current tectonic understanding of the Nanga Parbat–Haramosh massif (NPHM) is reviewed, developing new models for the structure and deformation of the Indian continental crust, its thermorheological evolution, and its relationship to surface processes. Comparisons are drawn with the Namche Barwa–Gyala Peri massif (NBGPM) that cores an equivalent syntaxis at the NE termination of the Himalayan arc. Both massifs show exceptionally rapid active denudation and riverine downcutting, identified from very young cooling ages measured from various thermochronometers. They also record relicts of high-pressure metamorphic conditions that chart early tectonic burial. Initial exhumation was probably exclusively by tectonic processes but the young, and continuing emergence of these massifs reflects combined tectonic and surface processes. The feedback mechanisms implicit in aneurysm models may have been overemphasized, especially the role of synkinematic granites as agents of rheological softening and strain localization. Patterns of distributed ductile deformation exhumed within the NPHM are consistent with models of orogen-wide gravitation flow, with the syntaxes forming the lateral edges to the flow beneath the Himalayan arc.
Towards resolving the metamorphic enigma of the Indian Plate in the NW Himalaya of Pakistan
Abstract The Pakistan part of the Himalaya has major differences in tectonic evolution compared with the main Himalayan range to the east of the Nanga Parbat syntaxis. There is no equivalent of the Tethyan Himalaya sedimentary sequence south of the Indus–Tsangpo suture zone, no equivalent of the Main Central Thrust, and no Miocene metamorphism and leucogranite emplacement. The Kohistan Arc was thrust southward onto the leading edge of continental India. All rocks exposed to the south of the arc in the footwall of the Main Mantle Thrust preserve metamorphic histories. However, these do not all record Cenozoic metamorphism. Basement rocks record Paleo-Proterozoic metamorphism with no Cenozoic heating; Neo-Proterozoic through Cambrian sediments record Ordovician ages for peak kyanite and sillimanite grade metamorphism, although Ar–Ar data indicate a Cenozoic thermal imprint which did not reset the peak metamorphic assemblages. The only rocks that clearly record Cenozoic metamorphism are Upper Paleozoic through Mesozoic cover sediments. Thermobarometric data suggest burial of these rocks along a clockwise pressure–temperature path to pressure–temperature conditions of c. 10–11 kbar and c. 700°C. Resolving this enigma is challenging but implies downward heating into the Indian plate, coupled with later development of unconformity parallel shear zones that detach Upper Paleozoic–Cenozoic cover rocks from Neoproterozoic to Paleozoic basement rocks and also detach those rocks from the Paleoproterozoic basement.
Himalayan earthquakes: a review of historical seismicity and early 21st century slip potential
Abstract This article summarizes recent advances in our knowledge of the past 1000 years of earthquakes in the Himalaya using geodetic, historical and seismological data, and identifies segments of the Himalaya that remain unruptured. The width of the Main Himalayan Thrust is quantified along the arc, together with estimates for the bounding coordinates of historical rupture zones, convergence rates, rupture propagation directions as constrained by felt intensities. The 2018 slip potential for fifteen segments of the Himalaya are evaluated and potential magnitudes assessed for future earthquakes should these segments fail in isolation or as contiguous ruptures. Ten of these fifteen segments are sufficiently mature currently to host a great earthquake (M w ≥ 8). Fatal Himalayan earthquakes have in the past occurred mostly in the daylight hours. The death toll from a future nocturnal earthquake in the Himalaya could possibly exceed 100 000 due to increased populations and the vulnerability of present-day construction methods.
The crustal structure of the Himalaya: A synthesis
Abstract This chapter examines the along-arc variation in the crustal structure of the Himalayan Mountain Range. Using results from published seismological studies, plus large teleseismic body-wave and surface-wave datasets which we analyse, we illustrate the along-arc variation by comparing the crustal properties beneath four representative areas of the Himalayan Mountain Range: the Western Syntaxis, the Garhwal–Kumaon, the Eastern Nepal–Sikkim, and the Bhutan–Northeastern India regions. The Western Syntaxis and the Bhutan–Northeastern India regions have a complicated structure extending far out in front of the main Range, whereas the Central Himalaya appear to have a much simpler structure. The deformation is more distributed beneath the western and eastern ends of the Range, but in general, the crust gradually thickens from c. 40 km on the southern side of the Foreland Basin to c. 80 km beneath the Tethys Himalaya. While the gross crustal structure of much of the Himalaya is becoming better known, our understanding of the internal structure of the Himalaya is still sketchy. The detailed geometry of the Main Himalayan Thrust and the role of the secondary structures on the underthrusting Indian Plate are yet to be characterized satisfactorily.