Pollen and lithopedological data were obtained from Upper Paleolithic sites and Upper Pleistocene loess-soil sequences located between the Sea of Azov and the River Donets, and in the foothills of the Crimean Mountains. During the last Middle Pleniglacial interstadial (Upper Vytachiv soil, 30–27 ka), there existed boreal steppe (south-boreal forest-steppe in Crimea). During the Late Pleniglacial, two main phases of loess accumulation occurred, which were separated by the phase of initial pedogenesis. The loess accumulated under subperiglacial xeric steppe (particularly dry at 15–13 ka), and the incipient soils (Dofinivka unit, 18–15 ka) formed under boreal grassland. During the Late Glacial interstadials, there existed boreal and south-boreal forest-steppe with a relatively wet climate (middle Prychernomorsk soil unit, the upper soil 11.8–11.4 ka). During the Younger Dryas, grassland reappeared under a dry and cool climate (10.9–10.5 ka). Paleoclimatic changes demonstrate the same pattern in both studied areas, and they correspond well with Black Sea transgressive-regressive cycles. Regional differences still existed—during all phases, the climate was the mildest in the western foothills of the Crimean Mountains, the coldest in the Donetsk Upland, and the driest near the Sea of Azov.

We discuss pollen, soil, geomorphologic, and archaeological records used for reconstructing climatic, biogeographic, and human-environment events in the Crimean Peninsula during the past 130 k.y. Warm and moist conditions conducive to forest growth prevailed during the Eemian Interglacial (marine isotope stage [MIS] 5e). Although sea levels were higher than at present, a review of the stratigraphic and geomorphic data suggests that the peninsula was not detached from the mainland. During the last glacial period (MIS 5d–MIS 2), conditions fluctuated between steppe and tree growth in warmer places during the stadials, and forest-steppe during the interstadials. The Pleistocene–Holocene transition involved forest growth during the Bølling-Allerød interstadials, steppe during the Younger Dryas, and a forest-steppe during the early Holocene. The establishment of the modern Black Sea ca. 7 ka and increasing temperatures led to the formation of the modern vegetation belts, ushering in optimal conditions for the establishment of Neolithic communities. A dry period peaked around 4–3.5 ka, followed by milder conditions that lasted until the colonization of Crimea by Greek farmers during the middle part of the first millennium A.D. Dry conditions at the end of the same millennium led to the abandonment of agriculture and settlement decline. Sea-level oscillations during the late Holocene had an important effect on shoreline configuration, lagoonal systems, coastal wetlands, and human settlements. Data used in this paper were drawn from a number of published papers, mostly in Russian and Ukrainian, as well as records produced by the authors' research.

Abstract As the Vashon glacier retreated from its terminal position in the southern Puget-Lowland and thinned rapidly, marine waters invaded the central and northern lowland, floating the ice and depositing Everson glaciomarine drift over a wide area from southern Whidbey Island to southern British Columbia. The Everson deposits are characterized by vast areas of massive, poorly sorted stony silt and clay commonly containing marine shells. At Bellingham Bay and elsewhere in the Fraser Lowland, Deming sand is overlain by massive, poorly sorted, Bellingham glaciomarine drift to elevations of 180–210 m above present sea level and is underlain by Kulshan glaciomarine drift. Following deposition of the Everson glaciomarine drift, ice readvanced into northern Washington and deposited Sumas Drift and meltwater channels were incised into the glaciomarine deposits. Four moraine-building phases are recognized in the Sumas, the last two in the Younger Dryas. Rapid deglaciation between 14,500 and 12,500 14 C yr B.P. resulted in lowering of the surface the Cordilleran Ice Sheet below ridge crests in the Nooksack drainage and glacial activity thereafter became topographically controlled. Local valley glaciers in the upper Nooksack Valley were fed by alpine glaciers on Mount Baker, Mount Shuksan, and the Twin Sisters Range that were no longer connected to the Cordilleran Ice Sheet. Remnants of the Cordilleran Ice Sheet persisted in the Fraser Lowland at that time but were separated from the Nooksack Valley glaciers by several ridges 1200 m higher than the surface of the ice sheet. Alpine glaciers deposited drift in the Middle and North forks of the Nooksack drainage 25–45 km down-valley from their sources. Large mega-landslides in the Nooksack drainage are associated with an area of unusually high seismic activity, whereas nearby areas having the same geology, topography, climate, and vegetation have no such mega-landslides, suggesting that the landslides are seismically induced. Five Holocene tephras have been recognized in the region around Mount Baker–Schreibers Meadow scoria, Mazama ash, Rocky Creek ash, Cathedral Crag ash, and the 1843 tephra.