Abstract The sensitivity of glacier mass balance (MB) in response to climatic perturbations has made it an important parameter of study from hydrological, climatological and glaciological point of view. To monitor the health of any glacier system, long-term MB observations are required. These observations among Himalayan glaciers are not available consistently and large glaciers are not often monitored for mass balance due to logistical challenges. One such glacier is the Gangotri, situated in the western Himalaya. In the present study an attempt is made to model the MB over the Gangotri glacier, the biggest glacier in the Ganga basin and also the point of origin of the River Ganges. The mass balance of the Gangotri glacier is estimated during the time period 1985–2014 using two different methods: ice-flow velocity; and energy balance modelling using regional model (REMO) outputs and in situ automatic weather station (AWS) data. The geodetic method is used for the nearby Dokriani glacier, where field-based MB measurements are available. MB of Gangotri glacier estimated for 2001–14 using the ice-flow velocity method is −0.92 ± 0.36 m w.e. a −1 ; for 2006–07, MB using AWS and Tropical Rainfall Monitoring Mission (TRMM) data with the energy balance modelling approach is −0.82 m w.e. a −1 ; and for 1985–2005, MB using REMO data with the energy balance modelling approach is −0.98 ± 0.23 m w.e. a −1 . Using the surface velocity method, it is estimated that the glacier lost 9% of its volume during the period 2001–14. The glacier vacated an area of 0.152 km 2 from the snout region, and retreated by 200 m in the last 14 years. MB values estimated for the Gangotri glacier from different methodologies are remarkably close, suggesting them to be suitable methods of MB estimation. TRMM, High Asia Refined (HAR-10) and Asian Precipitation Highly Resolved Observational Data Integration Towards Evaluation of water resources (APHRODITE) data are used to estimate the precipitation over the glacier. The study suggests that the glacier-wide estimation of weather parameters needs to be improved for more accurate estimation of glacier mass balance. Supplementary material: The snow-covered area, for months Jan-Dec, obtained for Gangotri glacier using Landsat data and NDSI (normalized differencing snow index) for year 2014 is available at https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.c.3888091

Abstract We describe a time series of meteorological parameters and surface energy balance components of a seasonal snow cover from an automatic weather station (4863 m a.s.l., 32.28° N, 77.58° E), for a winter season from 1 December 2012 to 30 March 2013, located on a moraine close to the equilibrium line altitude of Chhota Shigri glacier, Himachal Pradesh, India. The analysis shows that for over 80% of the time in winter, the snow surface was at a cooling phase. During late winter however, the surface had some positive residual energy which induced some melt during peak hours of the day. The net all-wave radiation was mostly negative during winter because of the high reflective property of snow and reduced incoming longwave radiation due to low cloud. The sensible heat flux heats the surface at night and enhances the cooling during day. The latent heat flux is always negative, showing that the surface is losing mass through sublimation processes (−0.83 mm w.e./day). A correlation between the energy fluxes and temperature shows a distinct relationship between fluxes. A comparison between the two studies performed on- and off-glacier reveals a significant difference in some parameters. A higher value (−1.08 mm/day) of sublimation rate at 4863 m a.s.l. shows that a large amount of energy available at the surface was used in sublimation processes. A comparatively lower albedo, relative humidity and net longwave radiation and higher latent heat flux, wind speed and net shortwave radiation yield a distinctive surface energy balance, highlighting the need for a large number of stations at different zones to achieve a coherent picture of energy balance in the region.

Abstract Near the South Pole, a large subglacial lake exists beneath the East Antarctic Ice Sheet less than 10 km from where the bed temperature is inferred to be −9°C. A thermodynamic model was used to investigate the apparent contradiction of basal water existing in the vicinity of a cold bed. Model results indicate that South Pole Lake is freezing and that neither present-day geothermal flux nor ice flow is capable of producing the necessary heat to sustain basal water at this location. We hypothesize that the lake comprises relict water formed during a different configuration of ice dynamics when significant frictional heating from ice sliding was available. Additional modelling of assumed basal sliding shows frictional heating was capable of producing the necessary heat to fill South Pole Lake. Independent evidence of englacial structures measured by airborne radar revel ice-sheet flow was more dynamic in the past. Ice sliding is estimated to have ceased between 16.8 and 10.7 ka based on an ice chronology from a nearby borehole. These findings reveal major post-Last Glacial Maximum ice-dynamic change within the interior of East Antarctica, demonstrating that the present interior ice flow is different than that under full glacial conditions.

Abstract A large volume of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet drains through the Totten Glacier (TG) and is thought to be a potential source of substantial global sea-level rise over the coming centuries. We show that the surface velocity and height of the floating part of the TG, which buttresses the grounded component, have varied substantially over two decades (1989–2011), with variations in surface height strongly anti-correlated with simulated basal melt rates ( r = 0.70, p < 0.05). Coupled glacier–ice shelf simulations confirm that ice flow and thickness respond to both basal melting of the ice shelf and grounding on bed obstacles. We conclude the observed variability of the TG is primarily ocean-driven. Ocean warming in this region will lead to enhanced ice-sheet dynamism and loss of upstream grounded ice.

Geoexchange systems utilize the heat capacity of the ground to provide efficient heating and cooling of buildings. West Chester University is developing a 16 MW district geoexchange system in southeast Pennsylvania. The system currently includes 529 borehole heat exchangers installed in fractured gneiss, with an anticipated 1400 borehole heat exchangers when complete. Borefield temperature, heat flux, and electric demand were recorded at 5 min intervals. Mean annual borefield temperature increased 2.1 °C yr −1 between 2011 and 2014, resulting from unbalanced cooling demand from high-occupancy buildings. The greatest recorded daily mean borefield temperature was 34.4 °C, which is significantly greater than ambient ground temperature of 12.8 °C and close to the maximum efficient design temperature of 41 °C for geothermal heat pumps. West Chester University is mitigating this unsustainable increase in temperature by installing a 738 kW cooling tower and heated sidewalks for snow removal. Inverse modeling of borefield temperature revealed an effective thermal conductivity between 1.3 and 1.4 W m −1 °C −1 , which is significantly less than the 2.9 W m −1 °C −1 of the formation, indicating that heat exchange is limited by borehole construction. Despite this performance issue, the system is operating with a coefficient of performance of 3.4 and 4.9 for heating and cooling, respectively. We conclude that thermogeologic investigation of borefield response could lead to significant improvements in efficiency and reduction in the number of wells required to maintain system performance.

Thermal response tests are the industry standard for borehole heat exchanger design in ground-coupled heat pump systems. Two previously conducted thermal response tests in phase 2 of the district-scale ground-coupled heat pump system at Ball State University (BSU) measured a bulk “formation” thermal conductivity K T between 2.6 and 3.0 W m −1 K −1 . Meanwhile, K T from a core recovered near BSU averages 2.2 ± 0.006 and 3.5 ± 0.086 W m −1 K −1 for dry and water-saturated samples, respectively. The range in K T data from saturated samples (1.8–7.2 W m −1 K −1 ) leads to the conclusion that thermal response tests do not capture the vertical and horizontal heterogeneity of heat flux in layered sedimentary aquifers. Characterization of the hydrogeologic environment can be one tool to tune district-scale ground-coupled heat pump systems to the specific on-site conditions that may influence the magnitude and mode of heat transfer. At BSU, temperature ( T ) changes in the groundwater environment at the active phase 1 field through October 2013 support this notion. After constant heat loading, a T increase of 14–18 °C was observed in the central monitoring well. The vertical structure in the T profile of this well may correlate to “thermofacies.” For example, a T spike between 14 and 19.5 m in depth may correspond to a sand and gravel zone in the surficial glacial till, and a T dip at a depth of 70 m agrees with the position of the Brainard Shale—zones of higher permeability and lower measured K T (2.0 W m −1 K −1 ), respectively. Higher measured K T zones, such as the low siliciclastic Silurian Salamonie Limestone and the Ordovician Whitewater Formation, may be target thermofacies for heat deposition and extraction. In contrast, sand and gravel zones within the glacial till may allow for significant thermal loading; however, groundwater advection may reduce the fraction of recoverable thermal load.

Geothermal energy depends on high subsurface temperature, adequate permeability and fracture volume, and accessible groundwater supply to support heat exchange with surrounding rock. Some regions may have adequate thermal resources but lack the necessary permeability or deep circulating water. Exploitation of such areas for geothermal energy could occur if permeability can be enhanced enough to provide the necessary heat exchange. These improvements to the geothermal reservoir would produce what is termed an “enhanced geothermal system” (EGS). The Snake River Plain (SRP) in southern Idaho is a geological region with high heat flux (~110 mW/m 2 ) that has been recommended as an EGS target. In this study, we consider how the geologic and thermal history of the SRP might influence its EGS potential. We describe the fracture distribution (mean = 28.63 fractures/10 m) in a welded tuff core recovered from one of the few deep boreholes located on the SRP and provide a preliminary discussion of the likely geomechanical behavior under in situ stress. Spatial autocorrelation of fracture features is defined with geostatistical techniques and used in a stochastic simulation of possible structures in other welded tuff reservoirs. Autocorrelation scales for the continuous date are on the order of 70 meters with high subsample scale variability (56 m). Results should aid in designing criteria for a hydraulic fracturing plan that would augment the permeability and connectivity of an SRP reservoir's preexisting fracture network.