The clay minerals present in the oil-sands ore are responsible for some of the most challenging (and intriguing) processing behavior experienced on a routine basis in oil-sands surface mining. In previous chapters, significant details have been provided on how specific clay properties can give rise to changes in slurry rheology and interface phenomena. Because the bitumen extraction process relies heavily on manipulation of interfacial effects to enhance separation, changes in clay content in the ore, not surprisingly, can have a dramatic impact on the ability to process the material. This chapter provides an overview of the extraction process, the influence of clay minerals on bitumen recovery, and the challenges in reacting to changes in the ore clay content in a typical operation. The chapters that follow focus on the larger issue of tailings treatment to create a reclaimed landscape at the end of mine life.

Abstract Bedforms that develop at the interface between a fluid flow and a loose sediment bed are among some of the most fundamental morphodynamic processes, perhaps among the greatest examples of canonical autogenic adjustments between flow and sediments. Because different types of bedforms develop under specific combinations of flow and sediment properties, these sedimentary features have commonly been used to aid interpretations of flow conditions and infer the nature of depositional environments. While subaerial (river) bedforms are relatively well understood, their counterparts in deep water (i.e., related to gravity underflows, namely, density or turbidity currents) remain somewhat elusive, largely due to the difficulty of direct observation in their natural setting, due to the limited number of experimental studies, and due to their inherent process complexity. Although widely practiced, extrapolation of equilibrium regime diagrams developed for subaerial bedforms to the deep-water realm remains questionable, particularly in light of recent experimental and field observations that suggest some departures from the subaerial counterpart. Herewe present results from an experimental program aimed at investigating equilibrium bedforms resulting from saline density currents under bypass conditions. Saline density currents have been typically treated as the surrogate of muddy turbidity currents for which sediments never settle. More than 500 separate experiments were run, comprising currents that spanned a wide range of the densimetric Froude number including all flow regimes (supercritical, critical, subcritical: Fr d = 0.6 to 2.8). Results confirm some similarities between subaerial and gravity flow bedforms both in process and product but also reveal some interesting differences. For example, ripples form under both subcritical and supercritical density currents, while supercritical currents yield dunes and both small-wavelength, downstream-migrating, and long-wavelength, upstream-migrating antidunes, where the latter may transition to cyclic steps. Supercriticality of the flow, the proportion of bedload to suspended load (when looking at the sediment composing the bed), and the bed characteristic sediment size are the major controls on the prevailing bedform observed. To investigate the flow and morphodynamic mechanisms related to some of the observed bedforms (e.g., supercritical dunes), detailed analyses of flow structure over the bed features were performed using particle image velocimetry techniques. Outcrop examples are presented to demonstrate that the gravity flow bedforms we observed experimentally might have counterparts at the field scale. Our findings underscore the rich spectrum of potential bed states produced by dense underflows and their deviation from bed behavior in open-channel flows. As a result, we argue that inversion of gravity flow bed features based on known subaerial bedform regimes might be potentially misleading.

Abstract Determining how autogenic and allogenic processes and responses in deltas scale up from meter-scale laboratory experiments to actual field examples remains a challenge. This study was devised to bridge that scale gap using field data from small, hundreds of meter-scale natural deltas. Ground-penetrating radar and core data were collected from four different river-dominated delta morphotypes developing at the margins of freshwater coastal lagoons in southern Brazil. Since the sediment supplying these deltas is sourced from a nearby dune field and is similar between the deltas, it is hypothesized that major morphological differences in the four deltas are primarily the result of differences in sediment discharge rates (sediment-water ratio). As observed in published tank experiments, channel cross-section and distributary channel patterns in the deltas vary as a function of sediment discharge, from shallow sheet-like flow at high discharge to well-established, stable distributary channels (i.e., birdsfoot pattern). A contributing factor may be the development of vegetation on the slower growing deltas influencing sediment cohesion, a key control in laboratory-scale deltas. As in many tank experiments, these lagoon deltas are steep and sandy, with the Froude number modulated to just below Froude critical flow (i.e., they are Froude-scaled). Ground-penetrating radar sections were processed, interpreted, and integrated with cores, allowing the definition of radar units. Analysis of the radar units demonstrates the presence of both allogenic and autogenic signals. Allogenic control is identified in the stacking of clinoforms and is perceptible in both sides of a single delta (delta 4), as well as in two other deltas (deltas 1 and 2). An autogenic signal varies according to delta planform shape and was identified by the stacking of lobe elements, both in dip and strike. Base-level change (lake level) and autogenic avulsion cycles occur on similar timescales, and therefore it is a significant challenge to separate these different processes in the stratigraphy. The potential uses of these types of data include understanding the link between delta dynamics, channel patterns, and stratigraphy to develop improved genetic models of steep sandy deltas common in the stratigraphic record.