Abstract Classic fold-thrust structures within Carboniferous-age strata at Broadhaven, SW Wales are well-known for their excellent preservation of Variscan deformation. These sites have been important for conceptual model generation of the link between faulting and folding, and are often cited as exemplars of fault-propagation folds following work by Williams & Chapman. Here we employ the virtual outcrop method to digitally map and measure, in detail, the classic Den’s Door outcrop. 3D reconstruction of the site by digital photogrammetry allows us to extract high-density structural measurements, reassess the existing model of structural development for the outcrop, and re-evaluate the link between faulting and folding. We find that digital mapping highlights greater variability in fault displacement and bed thicknesses than previously documented. Fracture analysis shows that fracture intensity is closely linked to structural position and bed-thickness variability, and fracture orientations record the existence of discrete mechanical boundaries through the structure. These results record complex patterns of strain distribution and multi-phase deformation. Evidence for temporal and spatial variability in strain distribution suggests that multiple kinematic and non-kinematic models of deformation are required to faithfully describe even this apparently simple structure. This calls into question the applicability of end-member models of fault-related folding, particularly for multilayered stratigraphy.

Abstract Creating accurate soil maps at large scales using traditional methods is a timeconsuming and expensive process. However, remote-sensing techniques can provide spatially and spectrally contiguous data in a timely manner. For this study, 20 root zone soil moisture maps derived from Landsat images during the growing season were used for the detection of soil boundaries. A split moving-window analysis along two demonstration transects in, respectively, a semi-arid desert and riparian area located in the Middle Rio Grande Valley of New Mexico showed that remotely sensed root zone soil moisture can reveal subsurface trends that can be used to identify soil boundaries that do not have a strong surface expression. Overall, the use of multiple remotely sensed root zone soil moisture and Landsat images for soil boundary delineation shows great promise of becoming a valuable tool in the field of digital soil mapping.

The practice of geologic mapping is undergoing conceptual and methodological transformation. Profound changes in digital technology in the past 10 yr have potential to impact all aspects of geologic mapping. The future of geologic mapping as a relevant scientific enterprise depends on widespread adoption of new technology and ideas about the collection, meaning, and utility of geologic map data. It is critical that the geologic community redefine the primary elements of the traditional paper geologic map and improve the integration of the practice of making maps in the field and office with the new ways to record, manage, share, and visualize their underlying data. A modern digital geologic mapping model will enhance scientific discovery, meet elevated expectations of modern geologic map users, and accommodate inevitable future changes in technology.

College geoscience departments keep archives of student research ranging from senior theses to master's and Ph.D. dissertations. In field geology, these archives often include maps, cross sections, stereographic projections, field notes and photographs, hand specimens, and thin sections. Subsequent publications may result from the thesis work, but much of this valuable legacy data is difficult to access and assess. Here we describe the conversion of a pre–digital-era thesis on the Vredefort Rim Synclinorium in South Africa from hard copy to digital format using Keyhole Markup Language (KML) to drape maps and inset photographs, and COLLADA (COLLAborative Design Activity) models to create stereographic projections, emergent cross sections, and virtual specimens. In addition to using the Google Earth terrain to fine-tune draped map locations, errors in field locations arising from pace and compass or bearing methods of geo-location that preceded the availability of Global Positioning Systems (GPS) were recognized and corrected. At 2.023 billion years in age and an estimated 300 km in original diameter, the Vredefort Dome is the world's oldest and largest known impact structure. The Vredefort region has been designated a World Heritage Site and specimen collection is prohibited. Only a few geologists are ever likely to visit the region, so geo-referenced field photography, specimens, and structural data are irreplaceable. An interpretative center is being planned for the Vredefort structure by South African authorities and our interactive Google Earth resources will be made available to the visiting public as well as those browsing over the Internet. Thus draped maps and scanned models provide an invaluable opportunity for enhanced instruction, continued research, and public outreach.

A workflow for digital geological mapping, from fieldwork to multidimensional digital map, has been designed and tested in a sector of the Northern Apennines (Furlo Anticline). Using digital tools, a field mapping campaign was conducted after the organization of conceptual schemas for data capture, storage, and management. Once the data and schemas had been tested to enable a map to be drawn using GIS tools, they were almost ready to be imported into modeling tools for maps, sections, and 3D models. Moreover, we believe that web visualization and distribution using Google Earth is a further step in the direction of knowledge transfer to a greater number of people.

The creation of new outcrops through construction is an important source of field data for geologists, especially in parts of the Appalachians with limited rock exposure. Users of Google Earth for field research often encounter disparities between the digital topography and the current-day Earth's surface, as newly formed outcrops may not be represented in the topography. Such is the case along sections of the I-26 corridor in Unicoi County, northeastern Tennessee. Twenty-four kilometers of U.S. 23 (future I-26) was widened to four lanes from Sams Gap at the North Carolina–Tennessee line to the Nolichucky River near Erwin, Tennessee, in the early 1990s. The series of outcrops created along the corridor provide an exceptional traverse through Grenvillian-age basement and cover strata which contain numerous stacked Alleghanian thrust sheets and shear zones. Near mile marker 44 along I-26, an ~250 m-long and 65 m-high outcrop was formed as part of the early 1990s construction. Google Earth satellite and Street View images show the outcrop, but the digital terrain in Google Earth does not reflect the approximate 150,000 m 3 of rock removed to form this roadcut. To correct for this, terrain modifications were made with Sketch-Up by copying and virtually excavating the landscape. The SketchUp model was then imported into Google Earth to show the outcrop and interstate as it looks today, with the interstate passing uninterrupted through a ridge rather than draping over hilly topography. This technique can be applied to any area in Google Earth where a mismatch exists between real and virtual topography.

Google Earth includes digital elevation models and surface imagery for the Earth, Moon, and Mars, but not for Venus. To help geoscientists visualize Venusian geology, geophysics, and geodynamics, we have built a “Google Venus” virtual globe on a Google Earth foundation. We present here details of how this was done and offer regional samples to show the power of the virtual globe, combined with space mission imagery, and COLLADA models in displaying surface data and global, crust-to-core cross sections. We show how web data sources can be linked to Venusian locations in an engaging, interactive format. Our approach could be adapted to other planets and moons of the Solar System and to models of exoplanets.

This chapter discusses the origins and purpose of Global Map, the current situation of the initiative, and the challenges it faces in the future. A major societal challenge facing the world today involves finding a way to deal more effectively with growing environmental problems. Reliable geographic information at a global scale is an indispensable element in formulating policy responses to global environmental challenges. The main purpose of Global Map is to describe the status of the global environment to aid in decision-making processes. Global Map provides digital maps of the terrestrial surface of Earth at a resolution of 1 km, with consistent and comparable specifications for every country. It is produced in cooperation with the national mapping organization in each country. Global Map was initiated by the government of Japan as a contribution to the action plan of the United Nations Agenda 21 program. There are four vector and four raster layers. Version 1 of Global Map was released in June 2008 and includes coverage of Antarctica. It also includes two global maps with complete high-quality coverage, one on land cover and the other on percentage tree cover. New uses of Global Map include disaster adaptation, mitigation, and management, and educational applications. Although Global Map as a product is important, the cooperative process by which Global Map is produced is equally important. This ongoing cooperation will help to ensure the future of Global Map as it enters a new phase in its development and make a substantial contribution to capacity building in the application of geoinformation to sustainable development.