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all geography including DSDP/ODP Sites and Legs
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Southwest Pacific
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I-129 (1)
-
-
-
hydrogen
-
D/H (15)
-
deuterium (14)
-
tritium (3)
-
-
isotope ratios (165)
-
isotopes
-
radioactive isotopes
-
Al-26 (14)
-
Ar-40/Ar-39 (9)
-
Be-10 (26)
-
Be-10/Be-9 (1)
-
Be-7 (1)
-
C-14 (15)
-
Ca-41 (1)
-
Cl-36 (7)
-
Cs-137 (2)
-
Fe-60 (1)
-
I-129 (1)
-
K-40 (3)
-
Os-187/Os-186 (1)
-
Pb-206/Pb-204 (17)
-
Pb-207/Pb-204 (15)
-
Pb-208/Pb-204 (13)
-
Pb-210 (3)
-
Pu-238 (1)
-
Pu-239 (1)
-
Pu-244 (1)
-
Ra-226 (1)
-
Rb-87/Sr-86 (2)
-
Re-187/Os-188 (2)
-
Sm-147/Nd-144 (4)
-
Tc-99 (1)
-
Th-230 (1)
-
Th-232 (1)
-
tritium (3)
-
U-235 (1)
-
U-238 (3)
-
U-238/Pb-204 (1)
-
U-238/U-235 (1)
-
-
stable isotopes
-
Al-27 (5)
-
Ar-36 (2)
-
Ar-40 (1)
-
Ar-40/Ar-36 (1)
-
Ar-40/Ar-39 (9)
-
B-11/B-10 (2)
-
Be-10/Be-9 (1)
-
C-13/C-12 (51)
-
Cl-37/Cl-35 (1)
-
D/H (15)
-
deuterium (14)
-
Fe-56/Fe-54 (2)
-
Fe-57 (3)
-
Fe-57/Fe-54 (1)
-
He-3 (7)
-
He-4 (2)
-
He-4/He-3 (3)
-
Hf-177/Hf-176 (2)
-
Kr-84 (1)
-
Li-6 (1)
-
N-15/N-14 (5)
-
Nd-144/Nd-143 (31)
-
Ne-20 (2)
-
Ne-21 (1)
-
Ni-60 (2)
-
O-17 (2)
-
O-17/O-16 (3)
-
O-18 (1)
-
O-18/O-16 (59)
-
Os-187/Os-186 (1)
-
Os-188/Os-187 (5)
-
Pb-206/Pb-204 (17)
-
Pb-207/Pb-204 (15)
-
Pb-207/Pb-206 (3)
-
Pb-208/Pb-204 (13)
-
Rb-87/Sr-86 (2)
-
Re-187/Os-188 (2)
-
S-32 (1)
-
S-33 (1)
-
S-34 (1)
-
S-34/S-32 (24)
-
S-36 (2)
-
Si-29 (4)
-
Si-29/Si-28 (1)
-
Si-30/Si-28 (1)
-
Sm-147/Nd-144 (4)
-
Sr-87/Sr-86 (40)
-
W-182 (1)
-
-
-
large-ion lithophile elements (2)
-
Lu/Hf (2)
-
metals
-
actinides
-
neptunium (2)
-
plutonium
-
Pu-238 (1)
-
Pu-239 (1)
-
Pu-244 (1)
-
-
protactinium (1)
-
thorium
-
Th-230 (1)
-
Th-232 (1)
-
-
uranium
-
U-235 (1)
-
U-238 (3)
-
U-238/Pb-204 (1)
-
U-238/U-235 (1)
-
-
-
alkali metals
-
cesium
-
Cs-137 (2)
-
-
lithium
-
Li-6 (1)
-
-
potassium
-
K-40 (3)
-
-
rubidium
-
Rb-87/Sr-86 (2)
-
-
sodium (36)
-
-
alkaline earth metals
-
barium (16)
-
beryllium
-
Be-10 (26)
-
Be-10/Be-9 (1)
-
Be-7 (1)
-
-
calcium
-
Ca-41 (1)
-
Sr/Ca (1)
-
-
magnesium (36)
-
radium
-
Ra-226 (1)
-
-
strontium
-
Rb-87/Sr-86 (2)
-
Sr/Ca (1)
-
Sr-87/Sr-86 (40)
-
-
-
aluminum
-
Al-26 (14)
-
Al-27 (5)
-
-
antimony (11)
-
arsenic (30)
-
bismuth (9)
-
cadmium (10)
-
chromium (21)
-
cobalt (11)
-
copper (24)
-
gallium (5)
-
germanium (6)
-
gold (25)
-
hafnium
-
Hf-177/Hf-176 (2)
-
-
indium (1)
-
iron
-
Fe-56/Fe-54 (2)
-
Fe-57 (3)
-
Fe-57/Fe-54 (1)
-
Fe-60 (1)
-
ferric iron (50)
-
ferrous iron (30)
-
-
lead
-
Pb-206/Pb-204 (17)
-
Pb-207/Pb-204 (15)
-
Pb-207/Pb-206 (3)
-
Pb-208/Pb-204 (13)
-
Pb-210 (3)
-
U-238/Pb-204 (1)
-
-
manganese (37)
-
mercury (12)
-
molybdenum (5)
-
nickel
-
Ni-60 (2)
-
-
niobium (11)
-
platinum group
-
iridium (7)
-
iridium ores (1)
-
osmium
-
Os-187/Os-186 (1)
-
Os-188/Os-187 (5)
-
Re-187/Os-188 (2)
-
-
osmium ores (1)
-
palladium (11)
-
palladium ores (6)
-
platinum (6)
-
platinum ores (21)
-
rhodium (2)
-
ruthenium (3)
-
ruthenium ores (1)
-
-
precious metals (8)
-
rare earths
-
cerium (10)
-
europium (6)
-
gadolinium (3)
-
holmium (1)
-
lanthanum (7)
-
lutetium (1)
-
neodymium
-
Nd-144/Nd-143 (31)
-
Sm-147/Nd-144 (4)
-
-
samarium
-
Sm-147/Nd-144 (4)
-
-
scandium (3)
-
terbium (2)
-
ytterbium (4)
-
yttrium (17)
-
-
rhenium
-
Re-187/Os-188 (2)
-
-
silver (15)
-
tantalum (4)
-
technetium
-
Tc-99 (1)
-
-
thallium (4)
-
tin (10)
-
titanium (27)
-
tungsten
-
W-182 (1)
-
-
vanadium (16)
-
zinc (14)
-
zirconium (12)
-
-
nitrogen
-
N-15/N-14 (5)
-
-
noble gases
-
argon
-
Ar-36 (2)
-
Ar-40 (1)
-
Ar-40/Ar-36 (1)
-
Ar-40/Ar-39 (9)
-
-
helium
-
He-3 (7)
-
He-4 (2)
-
He-4/He-3 (3)
-
-
krypton
-
Kr-84 (1)
-
-
neon
-
Ne-20 (2)
-
Ne-21 (1)
-
-
radon (2)
-
xenon (6)
-
-
nonmetals (1)
-
oxygen
-
O-17 (2)
-
O-17/O-16 (3)
-
O-18 (1)
-
O-18/O-16 (59)
-
-
phosphorus (3)
-
selenium (6)
-
silicon
-
Si-29 (4)
-
Si-29/Si-28 (1)
-
Si-30/Si-28 (1)
-
-
sulfur
-
S-32 (1)
-
S-33 (1)
-
S-34 (1)
-
S-34/S-32 (24)
-
S-36 (2)
-
-
tellurium (8)
-
trace metals (4)
-
-
fossils
-
bacteria
-
Geobacter (1)
-
-
burrows (3)
-
Chordata
-
Vertebrata
-
Pisces (1)
-
Tetrapoda
-
Mammalia
-
Theria
-
Eutheria
-
Primates
-
Hominidae
-
Homo
-
Homo erectus (1)
-
Homo habilis (1)
-
-
-
simians (1)
-
-
-
-
-
Reptilia
-
Diapsida
-
Archosauria
-
dinosaurs
-
Saurischia
-
Theropoda
-
Coelurosauria (1)
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
eukaryotes (1)
-
fungi (2)
-
Graptolithina (6)
-
Hemichordata (3)
-
ichnofossils (1)
-
Invertebrata
-
Archaeocyatha (1)
-
Arthropoda
-
Mandibulata
-
Crustacea
-
Ostracoda (3)
-
-
Insecta
-
Pterygota
-
Neoptera
-
Endopterygota
-
Coleoptera (1)
-
-
-
-
-
-
Trilobitomorpha
-
Trilobita (4)
-
-
-
Brachiopoda
-
Inarticulata
-
Lingula (1)
-
-
-
Cnidaria
-
Anthozoa (2)
-
-
Echinodermata (1)
-
Mollusca
-
Bivalvia
-
Heterodonta
-
Rudistae (1)
-
-
Pterioida
-
Pteriina
-
Inocerami
-
Inoceramidae (1)
-
-
-
-
-
Cephalopoda
-
Ammonoidea
-
Ammonites (3)
-
-
Coleoidea
-
Belemnoidea (1)
-
-
-
Gastropoda (1)
-
-
Porifera
-
Demospongea (1)
-
-
Protista
-
Foraminifera (14)
-
Radiolaria (3)
-
Tintinnidae
-
Calpionellidae (1)
-
-
-
-
microfossils
-
Conodonta (3)
-
-
palynomorphs
-
Dinoflagellata (2)
-
miospores
-
pollen (3)
-
-
-
Plantae
-
algae
-
Coccolithophoraceae (1)
-
diatoms (1)
-
nannofossils (4)
-
-
Bryophyta
-
Musci (1)
-
-
Pteridophyta
-
Pteridophyllen (1)
-
-
Spermatophyta
-
Angiospermae (1)
-
-
-
problematic fossils (1)
-
Pterobranchia (3)
-
-
geochronology methods
-
(U-Th)/He (21)
-
Ar/Ar (253)
-
exposure age (22)
-
fission-track dating (66)
-
He/He (2)
-
infrared stimulated luminescence (3)
-
K/Ar (33)
-
Lu/Hf (2)
-
Nd/Nd (2)
-
optical mineralogy (3)
-
optically stimulated luminescence (16)
-
paleomagnetism (57)
-
Pb/Pb (16)
-
racemization (1)
-
radiation damage (17)
-
Rb/Sr (22)
-
Re/Os (17)
-
Sm/Nd (12)
-
Sr/Sr (2)
-
tephrochronology (11)
-
Th/U (3)
-
thermochronology (58)
-
thermoluminescence (4)
-
tree rings (2)
-
U/Pb (136)
-
U/Th/Pb (10)
-
uranium disequilibrium (2)
-
-
geologic age
-
Cenozoic
-
Bronze Age (2)
-
Chalcolithic (1)
-
Koobi Fora Formation (1)
-
lower Cenozoic (2)
-
Omo Group (1)
-
Quaternary
-
Cordilleran ice sheet (2)
-
Holocene
-
middle Holocene (1)
-
Neolithic (1)
-
upper Holocene
-
Roman period (1)
-
-
-
Pleistocene
-
Bishop Tuff (1)
-
Lake Agassiz (2)
-
Lake Missoula (1)
-
lower Pleistocene
-
Calabrian (1)
-
Olduvai Subchron (1)
-
-
Matuyama Chron (2)
-
middle Pleistocene (2)
-
Old Crow Tephra (1)
-
upper Pleistocene
-
Neapolitan Yellow Tuff (2)
-
Weichselian
-
upper Weichselian
-
Younger Dryas (1)
-
-
-
Wisconsinan
-
upper Wisconsinan (5)
-
-
-
-
upper Quaternary
-
Brunhes Chron (2)
-
-
-
Saugus Formation (1)
-
Shungura Formation (1)
-
Siwalik System (1)
-
Stone Age
-
Neolithic (1)
-
Paleolithic (1)
-
-
Tertiary
-
Calipuy Group (1)
-
Catahoula Formation (1)
-
lower Tertiary (4)
-
middle Tertiary
-
Masset Formation (1)
-
-
Neogene
-
Bidahochi Formation (1)
-
Deschutes Formation (1)
-
Miocene
-
Antelope Shale (2)
-
Guantao Formation (1)
-
lower Miocene
-
Burdigalian (1)
-
Kasauli Series (1)
-
-
middle Miocene
-
Langhian (1)
-
-
upper Miocene
-
Mount Messenger Formation (1)
-
Pannonian (1)
-
Tortonian (1)
-
-
-
Pliocene
-
Gauss Chron (1)
-
lower Pliocene
-
Zanclean (1)
-
-
upper Pliocene
-
Piacenzian (1)
-
-
-
upper Neogene (2)
-
-
Paleogene
-
Dongying Formation (2)
-
Eocene
-
Bridgerian (1)
-
Green River Formation (3)
-
lower Eocene
-
Wasatchian (1)
-
-
middle Eocene
-
Lutetian (1)
-
-
Ootsa Lake Group (1)
-
Subathu Formation (1)
-
upper Eocene
-
Jackson Group (1)
-
-
Wilkins Peak Member (2)
-
-
Huber Formation (1)
-
lower Paleogene (1)
-
Oligocene
-
Fish Canyon Tuff (2)
-
Fontainebleau Sandstone (1)
-
lower Oligocene
-
Rupelian (1)
-
-
middle Oligocene (1)
-
upper Oligocene
-
Chattian (2)
-
-
Vicksburg Group (1)
-
-
Paleocene
-
lower Paleocene
-
Danian (1)
-
K-T boundary (3)
-
-
Nacimiento Formation (1)
-
Tullock Member (1)
-
upper Paleocene (3)
-
-
Wilcox Group (1)
-
-
Shahejie Formation (5)
-
-
upper Cenozoic (9)
-
-
Coal Measures (1)
-
Laurentide ice sheet (7)
-
Mesozoic
-
Antalya Complex (1)
-
Carrara Marble (1)
-
Cretaceous
-
Bahariya Formation (1)
-
Colorado Group (1)
-
Comanchean
-
Travis Peak Formation (1)
-
-
Hue Shale (1)
-
Logan Canyon Formation (1)
-
Lower Cretaceous
-
Agrio Formation (1)
-
Albian (5)
-
Aptian
-
Shuaiba Formation (1)
-
-
Berriasian (1)
-
Bluesky Formation (1)
-
Gething Formation (1)
-
Mannville Group (2)
-
McMurray Formation (3)
-
Missisauga Formation (1)
-
Neocomian (2)
-
Pebble Shale (1)
-
Travis Peak Formation (1)
-
Urgonian (1)
-
Yingcheng Formation (1)
-
-
Mancos Shale (2)
-
Middle Cretaceous (4)
-
Mishash Formation (1)
-
Nenjiang Formation (2)
-
Qingshankou Formation (4)
-
Quantou Formation (1)
-
Upper Cretaceous
-
Almond Formation (1)
-
Belle Fourche Shale (1)
-
Belly River Formation (1)
-
Blackhawk Formation (2)
-
Campanian (3)
-
Castlegate Sandstone (1)
-
Cenomanian
-
upper Cenomanian (1)
-
-
Coniacian (1)
-
Frontier Formation (1)
-
Ghareb Formation (1)
-
Gulfian
-
Austin Chalk (1)
-
Eagle Ford Formation (10)
-
-
Hell Creek Formation (1)
-
Horseshoe Canyon Formation (1)
-
K-T boundary (3)
-
Lance Formation (1)
-
Maestrichtian (2)
-
Mesaverde Group (4)
-
Neuquen Group (1)
-
Niobrara Formation (4)
-
Ojo Alamo Sandstone (1)
-
Pierre Shale (1)
-
Santonian (2)
-
Senonian (5)
-
Tuolumne Intrusive Suite (1)
-
Turonian
-
lower Turonian (2)
-
-
Tuscaloosa Formation (1)
-
Vivian Formation (1)
-
Williams Fork Formation (1)
-
-
Viking Formation (2)
-
-
Great Valley Sequence (1)
-
Jurassic
-
Bazhenov Formation (1)
-
Ferrar Group (1)
-
Heather Formation (3)
-
Kingak Shale (1)
-
Lower Jurassic
-
Dunlin Group (1)
-
Nordegg Member (1)
-
-
Mic Mac Formation (1)
-
Middle Jurassic
-
Bajocian
-
Brent Group (5)
-
Broom Formation (2)
-
Etive Formation (2)
-
Ness Formation (2)
-
Rannoch Formation (2)
-
Tarbert Formation (2)
-
-
Bathonian (1)
-
Callovian (3)
-
-
Opalinus Clay (1)
-
Posidonia Shale (1)
-
Upper Jurassic
-
Arab Formation (5)
-
Bossier Formation (3)
-
Entrada Sandstone (1)
-
Fulmar Formation (1)
-
Hanifa Formation (1)
-
Haynesville Formation (1)
-
Kimmeridge Clay (2)
-
Kimmeridgian (5)
-
Oxfordian (3)
-
Portlandian (1)
-
Smackover Formation (2)
-
Swift Formation (1)
-
Tithonian (2)
-
Volgian (1)
-
-
-
lower Mesozoic (3)
-
Navajo Sandstone (2)
-
Nugget Sandstone (1)
-
Statfjord Formation (2)
-
Triassic
-
Lower Triassic
-
Bunter (2)
-
Dinwoody Formation (1)
-
Permian-Triassic boundary (1)
-
Smithian (1)
-
-
Middle Triassic
-
Anisian (1)
-
Doig Formation (1)
-
Muschelkalk (1)
-
-
Montney Formation (4)
-
Sherwood Sandstone (1)
-
Shublik Formation (2)
-
Upper Triassic
-
Chinle Formation (2)
-
Norian (3)
-
Rhaetian (2)
-
Sag River Sandstone (1)
-
Shinarump Member (1)
-
Xujiahe Formation (1)
-
Yanchang Formation (7)
-
-
-
Vaca Muerta Formation (2)
-
Yanshanian (2)
-
-
Moldanubian (1)
-
Paleozoic
-
Acatlan Complex (2)
-
Arbuckle Group (1)
-
Berea Sandstone (4)
-
Bowers Supergroup (1)
-
Cambrian
-
Kanmantoo Group (1)
-
Lower Cambrian (11)
-
Middle Cambrian (4)
-
Upper Cambrian
-
Copper Ridge Dolomite (1)
-
Eau Claire Formation (1)
-
Goldenville Formation (1)
-
Mount Simon Sandstone (2)
-
-
-
Carboniferous
-
Amsden Formation (1)
-
Benxi Formation (1)
-
Huanglong Formation (1)
-
Lower Carboniferous
-
Dinantian (1)
-
-
Mississippian
-
Barnett Shale (5)
-
Chainman Shale (1)
-
Lower Mississippian
-
Kayak Shale (2)
-
Lodgepole Formation (2)
-
Osagian
-
Keokuk Limestone (2)
-
-
-
Madison Group (2)
-
Middle Mississippian
-
Visean (1)
-
-
Sunbury Shale (1)
-
Upper Mississippian
-
Chesterian
-
Cypress Sandstone (1)
-
-
Fayetteville Formation (1)
-
Greenbrier Limestone (1)
-
Hartselle Sandstone (1)
-
Meramecian
-
Saint Louis Limestone (1)
-
Warsaw Formation (2)
-
-
-
-
Pennsylvanian
-
Herrin Coal Member (1)
-
Lower Pennsylvanian
-
Bashkirian (1)
-
-
Middle Pennsylvanian
-
Atokan
-
Atoka Formation (1)
-
-
Desmoinesian (1)
-
Moscovian (1)
-
-
Upper Pennsylvanian
-
Canyon Group (1)
-
Cisco Group (2)
-
Holder Formation (1)
-
Missourian
-
Kansas City Group (1)
-
Lansing Group (1)
-
-
Virgilian (2)
-
-
-
Upper Carboniferous
-
Uralian (1)
-
-
-
Catskill Formation (1)
-
Chattanooga Shale (1)
-
Devonian
-
Beaverhill Lake Group (2)
-
Gile Mountain Formation (1)
-
Keg River Formation (1)
-
Lower Devonian
-
Shap Granite (1)
-
-
Middle Devonian
-
Givetian (1)
-
Mahantango Formation (1)
-
Marcellus Shale (8)
-
Onondaga Limestone (1)
-
Sylvania Formation (1)
-
-
Slave Point Formation (1)
-
Swan Hills Formation (2)
-
Thirtyone Formation (5)
-
Upper Devonian
-
Famennian
-
Wabamun Group (1)
-
-
Frasnian
-
Leduc Formation (1)
-
-
Grosmont Formation (4)
-
Jefferson Group (2)
-
Kanayut Conglomerate (1)
-
Ohio Shale (1)
-
-
Waterways Formation (2)
-
-
Endicott Group (1)
-
Knox Group (2)
-
Laborcita Formation (1)
-
Lisburne Group (2)
-
lower Paleozoic
-
Penobscot Formation (1)
-
Rose Run Sandstone (1)
-
-
Matapedia Group (1)
-
middle Paleozoic (1)
-
New Albany Shale (1)
-
Ordovician
-
Lower Ordovician
-
Arenigian (2)
-
Beekmantown Group (1)
-
Ellenburger Group (4)
-
Tremadocian (2)
-
-
Middle Ordovician
-
Black River Group (1)
-
Deicke Bentonite Bed (1)
-
Millbrig Bentonite Bed (1)
-
Saint Peter Sandstone (2)
-
Simpson Group (1)
-
-
Miramichi Group (1)
-
Montoya Group (1)
-
Tetagouche Group (1)
-
Trenton Group (3)
-
Upper Ordovician
-
Bighorn Dolomite (1)
-
Caradocian
-
Borrowdale Volcanic Group (3)
-
-
Red River Formation (1)
-
Wufeng Formation (9)
-
-
Utica Shale (2)
-
-
Permian
-
Chase Group (2)
-
Echooka Formation (1)
-
Guadalupian
-
Brushy Canyon Formation (1)
-
Cherry Canyon Formation (1)
-
Tansill Formation (1)
-
-
Khuff Formation (1)
-
Lower Permian
-
Al Khlata Formation (1)
-
Cherry Canyon Formation (1)
-
Leonardian
-
Clear Fork Group (3)
-
-
Qixia Formation (1)
-
Wolfcampian (9)
-
-
Maokou Formation (1)
-
Meade Peak Member (1)
-
Middle Permian (1)
-
Park City Formation (1)
-
Phosphoria Formation (2)
-
Upper Permian
-
Permian-Triassic boundary (1)
-
Raniganj Formation (1)
-
Salado Formation (1)
-
Zechstein (1)
-
-
Yates Formation (1)
-
-
Silurian
-
Bass Islands Dolomite (1)
-
Fusselman Dolomite (1)
-
Lower Silurian
-
Llandovery
-
Aeronian (1)
-
-
Qalibah Formation (1)
-
Tuscarora Formation (1)
-
-
Middle Silurian
-
Clinton Group (1)
-
Rose Hill Formation (1)
-
-
Upper Silurian
-
Ludlow
-
Ludfordian (1)
-
-
Wristen Formation (1)
-
-
-
Supai Formation (1)
-
Tensleep Sandstone (2)
-
upper Paleozoic
-
Bakken Formation (7)
-
Kaskaskia Sequence (1)
-
Shanxi Formation (2)
-
-
Waits River Formation (1)
-
Woodford Shale (5)
-
-
Phanerozoic (5)
-
Precambrian
-
Archean
-
Aravalli System (1)
-
Fig Tree Group (1)
-
J-M Reef (1)
-
Neoarchean (7)
-
Paleoarchean (1)
-
Singhbhum Granite (1)
-
Taihua Group (1)
-
Timiskaming Group (3)
-
-
Brockman Iron Formation (1)
-
Hadean (1)
-
Hamersley Group (1)
-
Kisseynew Complex (1)
-
Laramie anorthosite complex (1)
-
Lewisian Complex (1)
-
Minas Supergroup (1)
-
Prince Albert Group (1)
-
Stillwater Complex (1)
-
Transvaal Supergroup (2)
-
Uinta Mountain Group (1)
-
upper Precambrian
-
Proterozoic
-
Athabasca Formation (2)
-
Damara System (1)
-
Great Oxidation Event (1)
-
Huronian
-
Gowganda Formation (1)
-
-
Lewisian (2)
-
Mesoproterozoic
-
Belt Supergroup (2)
-
Gawler Range Volcanics (2)
-
Hiltaba Suite (2)
-
-
Neoproterozoic
-
Ediacaran (4)
-
Riphean
-
upper Riphean (1)
-
-
Tonian (1)
-
Torridonian (1)
-
Vendian (2)
-
-
Paleoproterozoic
-
Baker Lake Group (2)
-
Dhanjori Group (2)
-
Francevillian (1)
-
Orosirian (1)
-
Rooiberg Group (1)
-
Wollaston Group (2)
-
-
Windermere System (1)
-
-
-
Ventersdorp Supergroup (2)
-
Witwatersrand Supergroup (1)
-
-
-
igneous rocks
-
extrusive rocks (1)
-
igneous rocks
-
carbonatites (13)
-
feldspathoid rocks (4)
-
granophyre (2)
-
hypabyssal rocks (2)
-
kamafugite (1)
-
kimberlite (9)
-
picrite (5)
-
plutonic rocks
-
anorthosite (13)
-
appinite (2)
-
diabase
-
tholeiitic dolerite (2)
-
-
diorites
-
diorite porphyry (1)
-
plagiogranite (3)
-
quartz diorites (7)
-
tonalite (2)
-
trondhjemite (1)
-
-
gabbros
-
norite (6)
-
troctolite (1)
-
-
granites
-
alkali granites (3)
-
aplite (4)
-
A-type granites (7)
-
charnockite (2)
-
felsite (2)
-
granite porphyry (2)
-
granosyenite (1)
-
I-type granites (2)
-
leucogranite (8)
-
microgranite (2)
-
monzogranite (6)
-
two-mica granite (2)
-
-
granodiorites
-
granodiorite porphyry (1)
-
-
ijolite (3)
-
jotunite (1)
-
lamproite (3)
-
lamprophyres
-
camptonite (1)
-
minette (1)
-
spessartite (1)
-
-
monzodiorite (5)
-
monzonites
-
mangerite (1)
-
-
pegmatite (46)
-
quartz monzonite (3)
-
syenites
-
albitite (1)
-
alkali syenites (4)
-
granosyenite (1)
-
nepheline syenite (3)
-
quartz syenite (1)
-
-
ultramafics
-
chromitite (2)
-
peridotites
-
dunite (4)
-
garnet peridotite (1)
-
harzburgite (1)
-
lherzolite (2)
-
spinel lherzolite (2)
-
-
pyroxenite
-
clinopyroxenite (1)
-
garnet pyroxenite (1)
-
orthopyroxenite (1)
-
-
-
urtite (1)
-
-
porphyry (6)
-
volcanic rocks
-
adakites (1)
-
andesites
-
boninite (1)
-
-
basalts
-
alkali basalts
-
hawaiite (3)
-
mugearite (3)
-
trachybasalts (2)
-
-
flood basalts (8)
-
mid-ocean ridge basalts (15)
-
ocean-island basalts (9)
-
olivine basalt (1)
-
shoshonite (4)
-
tholeiite (8)
-
tholeiitic basalt (4)
-
trap rocks (1)
-
-
basanite (4)
-
dacites (13)
-
glasses
-
obsidian (3)
-
palagonite (1)
-
volcanic glass (7)
-
-
keratophyre (1)
-
komatiite (6)
-
latite (2)
-
leucitite (1)
-
meimechite (1)
-
melilitite (2)
-
nephelinite (2)
-
phonolites (10)
-
pyroclastics
-
ash-flow tuff (3)
-
hyaloclastite (1)
-
ignimbrite (18)
-
pumice (7)
-
scoria (1)
-
tuff (26)
-
-
rhyodacites (5)
-
rhyolites
-
pantellerite (2)
-
-
tephrite (1)
-
trachyandesites (4)
-
trachytes (6)
-
-
-
ophiolite (21)
-
wehrlite (1)
-
-
metamorphic rocks
-
K-bentonite (2)
-
metamorphic rocks
-
amphibolites (6)
-
cataclasites (3)
-
eclogite (12)
-
fulgurite (2)
-
gneisses
-
augen gneiss (1)
-
granite gneiss (1)
-
orthogneiss (3)
-
paragneiss (3)
-
-
granulites (9)
-
hornfels (1)
-
impactites
-
impact breccia
-
suevite (3)
-
-
-
itabirite (1)
-
marbles (16)
-
metaigneous rocks
-
metabasalt (2)
-
metabasite (4)
-
metagabbro (1)
-
metagranite (2)
-
metaperidotite (1)
-
serpentinite (5)
-
-
metaplutonic rocks (1)
-
metasedimentary rocks
-
metachert (2)
-
metagraywacke (1)
-
metapelite (6)
-
metasandstone (2)
-
paragneiss (3)
-
-
metasomatic rocks
-
fenite (1)
-
greisen (3)
-
serpentinite (5)
-
skarn (22)
-
-
metavolcanic rocks (9)
-
migmatites (5)
-
mylonites
-
blastomylonite (1)
-
pseudotachylite (6)
-
-
phyllites (2)
-
quartzites (13)
-
schists
-
blueschist (6)
-
chlorite schist (1)
-
greenstone (2)
-
-
slates (3)
-
-
ophiolite (21)
-
turbidite (16)
-
-
meteorites
-
meteorites
-
Allan Hills Meteorites
-
ALH 84001 (1)
-
-
Dar al Gani Meteorites
-
DaG 476 (1)
-
-
Elephant Moraine Meteorites
-
EETA 79001 (1)
-
-
iron meteorites
-
octahedrite
-
Canyon Diablo Meteorite (1)
-
-
-
Northwest Africa Meteorites (1)
-
Queen Alexandra Range Meteorites
-
QUE 94201 (1)
-
-
stony irons
-
pallasite (1)
-
-
stony meteorites
-
acapulcoite (1)
-
achondrites
-
angrite
-
D'Orbigny Meteorite (1)
-
-
aubrite (1)
-
diogenite (1)
-
eucrite (2)
-
howardite (1)
-
lunar meteorites (3)
-
Martian meteorites
-
ALH 84001 (1)
-
SNC Meteorites
-
chassignite
-
Chassigny Meteorite (1)
-
-
nakhlite (1)
-
shergottite
-
DaG 476 (1)
-
EETA 79001 (1)
-
QUE 94201 (1)
-
-
-
-
ureilite (2)
-
-
chondrites
-
carbonaceous chondrites
-
CI chondrites (1)
-
CM chondrites (1)
-
CV chondrites
-
Allende Meteorite (1)
-
-
-
enstatite chondrites (2)
-
Kaidun Meteorite (1)
-
ordinary chondrites
-
H chondrites
-
Tieschitz Meteorite (1)
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
minerals
-
alloys
-
carbides
-
moissanite (1)
-
-
electrum (1)
-
kamacite (2)
-
nitrides (1)
-
phosphides
-
schreibersite (2)
-
-
silicides
-
ferrosilicon (1)
-
-
taenite (2)
-
tetrataenite (1)
-
-
antimonates (3)
-
antimonides (3)
-
arsenates
-
mimetite (1)
-
pharmacosiderite (2)
-
scorodite (4)
-
-
arsenides
-
arsenopyrite (11)
-
cobaltite (3)
-
lollingite (1)
-
maucherite (1)
-
nickeline (1)
-
skutterudite (2)
-
sperrylite (2)
-
-
arsenites (1)
-
bismuthides
-
froodite (1)
-
-
borates
-
kernite (2)
-
kotoite (1)
-
kurnakovite (1)
-
vonsenite (1)
-
-
carbonates
-
ankerite (2)
-
aragonite (19)
-
bastnaesite (2)
-
calcite (53)
-
cancrinite (7)
-
cerussite (3)
-
dolomite (21)
-
hydromagnesite (1)
-
hydrotalcite (7)
-
ikaite (2)
-
kutnohorite (1)
-
leadhillite (1)
-
magnesian calcite (1)
-
magnesite (8)
-
malachite (2)
-
meionite (1)
-
monohydrocalcite (2)
-
norsethite (1)
-
pyroaurite (1)
-
rhodochrosite (2)
-
siderite (7)
-
sjogrenite (1)
-
spurrite (5)
-
strontianite (2)
-
synchysite (1)
-
thaumasite (3)
-
trona (1)
-
vaterite (4)
-
witherite (1)
-
-
chromates (3)
-
copper minerals (9)
-
halides
-
bromides (1)
-
chlorides
-
atacamite (1)
-
bideauxite (1)
-
eudialyte (1)
-
halite (5)
-
mimetite (1)
-
pyromorphite (2)
-
sylvite (1)
-
vanadinite (1)
-
-
fluorides
-
bastnaesite (2)
-
bideauxite (1)
-
clinohumite (6)
-
cryolite (2)
-
fluorite (8)
-
humite (6)
-
leifite (1)
-
neighborite (3)
-
norbergite (1)
-
synchysite (1)
-
topaz (8)
-
triplite (1)
-
weberite (2)
-
zinnwaldite (1)
-
-
iodides (1)
-
zunyite (1)
-
-
hydrates (22)
-
K-bentonite (2)
-
manganese minerals (6)
-
minerals (59)
-
molybdates
-
powellite (1)
-
wulfenite (2)
-
-
native elements
-
carbonado (1)
-
diamond
-
microdiamond (2)
-
-
graphite (4)
-
lonsdaleite (1)
-
-
nitrates (2)
-
onyx (1)
-
organic minerals
-
amber (1)
-
-
oxalates (1)
-
oxides
-
akaganeite (3)
-
alexandrite (1)
-
aluminum oxides (11)
-
anatase (2)
-
baddeleyite (8)
-
bayerite (1)
-
birnessite (4)
-
bixbyite (2)
-
brannerite (1)
-
brookite (1)
-
brucite (19)
-
cassiterite (5)
-
chrome spinel (3)
-
chromite (6)
-
chrysoberyl (2)
-
coronadite (1)
-
corundum (4)
-
cryptomelane (3)
-
diaspore (4)
-
ferrihydrite (23)
-
ferropericlase (2)
-
franklinite (1)
-
gahnite (3)
-
geikielite (3)
-
germanates (6)
-
gibbsite (3)
-
goethite (17)
-
groutite (2)
-
hematite (36)
-
hercynite (5)
-
hibonite (2)
-
hollandite (3)
-
hydroxides
-
aluminum hydroxides (11)
-
iron hydroxides (7)
-
oxyhydroxides (11)
-
schoepite (3)
-
-
ilmenite (19)
-
iron oxides (29)
-
jacobsite (2)
-
lepidocrocite (1)
-
limonite (1)
-
maghemite (2)
-
magnesioferrite (5)
-
magnesium oxides (1)
-
magnetite (27)
-
manganese oxides (9)
-
manganosite (1)
-
niobates
-
columbite (8)
-
fergusonite (1)
-
loparite (1)
-
pyrochlore (11)
-
tapiolite (1)
-
-
periclase (6)
-
perovskite (25)
-
pitchblende (1)
-
portlandite (2)
-
pseudobrookite (1)
-
pyrolusite (3)
-
pyrophanite (1)
-
ramsdellite (2)
-
rancieite (1)
-
rutile (23)
-
sapphire (1)
-
spinel (45)
-
spinel group (28)
-
tantalates
-
microlite (1)
-
tantalite (4)
-
-
thorianite (2)
-
titanium oxides (14)
-
titanomaghemite (1)
-
titanomagnetite (6)
-
todorokite (3)
-
trevorite (1)
-
ulvospinel (4)
-
uraninite (12)
-
vernadite (1)
-
wustite (4)
-
zirconolite (4)
-
-
phosphates
-
amblygonite (3)
-
apatite (92)
-
autunite (6)
-
britholite (1)
-
brushite (3)
-
carbonate apatite (2)
-
chlorapatite (5)
-
crandallite (2)
-
eosphorite (1)
-
florencite (1)
-
fluorapatite (17)
-
francolite (1)
-
hureaulite (2)
-
hydroxylapatite (10)
-
merrillite (3)
-
monazite (26)
-
monetite (2)
-
montebrasite (3)
-
plumbogummite (1)
-
pyromorphite (2)
-
rockbridgeite (3)
-
sarcopside (2)
-
scholzite (1)
-
strengite (1)
-
torbernite (1)
-
triphylite (2)
-
triplite (1)
-
variscite (1)
-
wavellite (2)
-
whitlockite (2)
-
xenotime (22)
-
-
platinum minerals (17)
-
selenates (2)
-
selenides (11)
-
silicates
-
aluminosilicates (17)
-
asbestos (6)
-
barium silicates (1)
-
borosilicates (7)
-
chain silicates
-
aenigmatite group
-
rhonite (1)
-
sapphirine (3)
-
-
amphibole group
-
clinoamphibole
-
actinolite (4)
-
arfvedsonite (3)
-
crocidolite (1)
-
cummingtonite (3)
-
glaucophane (4)
-
grunerite (3)
-
hastingsite (1)
-
hornblende (23)
-
kaersutite (2)
-
nephrite (1)
-
pargasite (6)
-
richterite (11)
-
riebeckite (3)
-
tremolite (13)
-
tschermakite (3)
-
-
orthoamphibole
-
anthophyllite (1)
-
gedrite (1)
-
holmquistite (1)
-
-
-
bavenite (1)
-
jade (1)
-
leucosphenite (1)
-
prehnite (3)
-
pyroxene group
-
clinopyroxene
-
aegirine (8)
-
augite (4)
-
clinoenstatite (2)
-
diopside (13)
-
hedenbergite (6)
-
jadeite (5)
-
johannsenite (1)
-
omphacite (2)
-
pigeonite (3)
-
spodumene (5)
-
-
orthopyroxene
-
enstatite (16)
-
ferrosilite (1)
-
protoenstatite (1)
-
-
-
rhodonite group
-
babingtonite (1)
-
rhodonite (3)
-
-
tobermorite (2)
-
wollastonite group
-
pectolite (8)
-
wollastonite (3)
-
-
xonotlite (1)
-
-
feldspathoids (3)
-
framework silicates
-
cancrinite (7)
-
feldspar group
-
alkali feldspar
-
adularia (5)
-
amazonite (1)
-
anorthoclase (2)
-
celsian (2)
-
K-feldspar (16)
-
microcline (5)
-
orthoclase (6)
-
perthite (2)
-
sanidine (20)
-
-
barium feldspar
-
celsian (2)
-
-
plagioclase
-
albite (7)
-
andesine (1)
-
anorthite (12)
-
labradorite (2)
-
reedmergnerite (1)
-
-
-
leucite (11)
-
nepheline group
-
kalsilite (5)
-
nepheline (12)
-
-
scapolite group
-
meionite (1)
-
scapolite (1)
-
-
silica minerals
-
agate (4)
-
amethyst (1)
-
carnelian (2)
-
chalcedony (4)
-
chrysoprase (1)
-
coesite (6)
-
cristobalite (4)
-
jasper (2)
-
melanophlogite (1)
-
moganite (3)
-
opal
-
opal-A (7)
-
opal-CT (3)
-
-
quartz
-
alpha quartz (3)
-
smoky quartz (1)
-
-
stishovite (10)
-
tridymite (2)
-
-
sodalite group
-
genthelvite (1)
-
hauyne (3)
-
helvite (2)
-
lazurite (3)
-
nosean (2)
-
sodalite (5)
-
-
zeolite group
-
analcime (10)
-
chabazite (8)
-
clinoptilolite (3)
-
edingtonite (3)
-
erionite (5)
-
faujasite (1)
-
ferrierite (3)
-
garronite (2)
-
gmelinite (3)
-
heulandite (4)
-
laumontite (3)
-
mesolite (2)
-
mordenite (3)
-
natrolite (13)
-
phillipsite (7)
-
pollucite (3)
-
roggianite (1)
-
scolecite (5)
-
thomsonite (3)
-
wairakite (6)
-
yugawaralite (1)
-
-
-
garnierite (1)
-
leifite (1)
-
magnesian silicates (8)
-
neptunite (1)
-
orthosilicates
-
nesosilicates
-
andalusite (4)
-
braunite (3)
-
britholite group
-
britholite (1)
-
-
chloritoid (3)
-
chondrodite (4)
-
clinohumite (6)
-
datolite group
-
datolite (3)
-
gadolinite (1)
-
-
dumortierite (2)
-
ellenbergerite (1)
-
euclase (1)
-
garnet group
-
almandine (2)
-
andradite (10)
-
grossular (13)
-
hydrogarnet
-
hibschite (3)
-
hydrogrossular (6)
-
-
majorite (3)
-
melanite (1)
-
pyrope (9)
-
schorlomite (1)
-
spessartine (3)
-
uvarovite (3)
-
-
humite (6)
-
kyanite (9)
-
larnite (7)
-
merwinite (4)
-
mullite (13)
-
norbergite (1)
-
olivine group
-
fayalite (14)
-
forsterite (23)
-
kirschsteinite (1)
-
monticellite (3)
-
olivine (40)
-
ringwoodite (9)
-
wadsleyite (12)
-
-
phenakite group
-
eucryptite (1)
-
phenakite (1)
-
-
sillimanite (9)
-
spurrite (5)
-
staurolite (2)
-
thaumasite (3)
-
titanite group
-
malayaite (2)
-
titanite (21)
-
-
topaz (8)
-
uranophane (2)
-
zircon group
-
coffinite (4)
-
thorite (5)
-
zircon (134)
-
-
-
sorosilicates
-
bertrandite (2)
-
chevkinite group
-
chevkinite (2)
-
-
epidote group
-
allanite (12)
-
clinozoisite (5)
-
epidote (14)
-
piemontite (5)
-
zoisite (12)
-
-
ilvaite (2)
-
kilchoanite (2)
-
lawsonite (12)
-
melilite group
-
akermanite (1)
-
gehlenite (3)
-
melilite (3)
-
-
pumpellyite group
-
julgoldite (2)
-
pumpellyite (7)
-
-
vesuvianite (10)
-
zunyite (1)
-
-
-
ring silicates
-
aquamarine (3)
-
beryl (19)
-
cordierite (22)
-
emerald (6)
-
eudialyte (1)
-
milarite group
-
milarite (1)
-
osumilite (1)
-
-
scawtite (1)
-
tourmaline group
-
dravite (8)
-
elbaite (3)
-
foitite (1)
-
schorl (1)
-
uvite (2)
-
-
-
sheet silicates
-
apophyllite (2)
-
chlorite group
-
chamosite (1)
-
chlorite (29)
-
clinochlore (7)
-
-
clay minerals
-
allophane (2)
-
beidellite (1)
-
dickite (6)
-
halloysite (7)
-
hectorite (8)
-
hisingerite (1)
-
imogolite (1)
-
kaolinite (38)
-
metahalloysite (1)
-
montmorillonite (31)
-
nacrite (2)
-
nontronite (2)
-
saponite (6)
-
smectite (52)
-
stevensite (2)
-
vermiculite (7)
-
-
clintonite (2)
-
gillespite (1)
-
hydrobiotite (1)
-
illite (39)
-
magadiite (1)
-
margarite (2)
-
mica group
-
annite (6)
-
biotite (52)
-
celadonite (7)
-
fluor-phlogopite (2)
-
glauconite (5)
-
lepidolite (2)
-
muscovite (59)
-
paragonite (4)
-
phengite (15)
-
phlogopite (25)
-
polylithionite (1)
-
zinnwaldite (1)
-
-
palygorskite (11)
-
petalite (2)
-
pyrophyllite (3)
-
sepiolite (6)
-
sericite (6)
-
serpentine group
-
antigorite (4)
-
berthierine (1)
-
chrysotile (4)
-
cronstedtite (2)
-
lizardite (6)
-
serpentine (7)
-
-
talc (4)
-
-
-
sulfates
-
alum (1)
-
alunite (8)
-
anglesite (1)
-
anhydrite (17)
-
barite (12)
-
bassanite (4)
-
brochantite (1)
-
celestine (3)
-
chalcanthite (2)
-
copiapite (4)
-
coquimbite (4)
-
epsomite (4)
-
ettringite (3)
-
glauberite (1)
-
gypsum (16)
-
halotrichite (2)
-
hexahydrite (2)
-
iron sulfates (1)
-
jarosite (13)
-
kieserite (1)
-
langbeinite (1)
-
lazurite (3)
-
leadhillite (1)
-
melanterite (4)
-
pickeringite (1)
-
polyhalite (1)
-
posnjakite (1)
-
roemerite (2)
-
rozenite (3)
-
schwertmannite (4)
-
selenite (1)
-
thaumasite (3)
-
voltaite (2)
-
-
sulfides
-
acanthite (2)
-
alabandite (2)
-
alloclasite (1)
-
arsenopyrite (11)
-
bismuthinite (1)
-
bornite (8)
-
cattierite (2)
-
chalcocite (1)
-
chalcopyrite (14)
-
cinnabar (3)
-
cobaltite (3)
-
copper sulfides (2)
-
covellite (2)
-
cubanite (1)
-
digenite (3)
-
galena (13)
-
genthelvite (1)
-
greenockite (2)
-
greigite (4)
-
heazlewoodite (1)
-
helvite (2)
-
herzenbergite (1)
-
iron sulfides (5)
-
jordisite (2)
-
kesterite (2)
-
laurite (3)
-
lazurite (3)
-
mackinawite (5)
-
marcasite (3)
-
mawsonite (1)
-
millerite (3)
-
molybdenite (8)
-
nickel sulfides (3)
-
pentlandite (7)
-
pyrite (31)
-
pyrrhotite (16)
-
realgar (2)
-
siegenite (1)
-
smythite (2)
-
sphalerite (11)
-
stibnite (2)
-
talnakhite (1)
-
tetradymite (1)
-
tochilinite (1)
-
troilite (5)
-
vaesite (2)
-
valleriite (1)
-
violarite (2)
-
wurtzite (2)
-
-
sulfosalts
-
sulfantimonates
-
famatinite (1)
-
-
sulfantimonites
-
bournonite (1)
-
chalcostibite (1)
-
geocronite (1)
-
meneghinite (1)
-
miargyrite (1)
-
pyrargyrite (1)
-
tetrahedrite (6)
-
-
sulfarsenates
-
enargite (1)
-
-
sulfarsenites
-
geocronite (1)
-
jordanite (1)
-
proustite (1)
-
seligmannite (1)
-
tennantite (8)
-
-
sulfobismuthites
-
berryite (1)
-
emplectite (1)
-
-
sulfostannates
-
stannite (2)
-
-
-
tellurates (1)
-
tellurides
-
altaite (1)
-
calaverite (2)
-
sylvanite (1)
-
tetradymite (1)
-
-
tungstates
-
ferberite (1)
-
scheelite (3)
-
wolframite (4)
-
-
uranium minerals (12)
-
vanadates
-
carnotite (2)
-
vanadinite (1)
-
-
wehrlite (1)
-
-
Primary terms
-
absolute age (352)
-
academic institutions (1)
-
Africa
-
Cape Verde Islands (1)
-
Central Africa
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Angola (1)
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Central African Republic (1)
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Congo (3)
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Congo Democratic Republic (6)
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Gabon
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Oklo (2)
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Rwanda (2)
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Congo Craton (1)
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East Africa
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Ethiopia (4)
-
Kenya
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Kenya Rift valley (3)
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Lake Magadi (1)
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Mount Kenya (1)
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Lake Turkana (2)
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Malawi (4)
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Mozambique (3)
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Sudan (3)
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Tanzania (3)
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Turkana Basin (2)
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Uganda (1)
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East African Lakes
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Lake Magadi (1)
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Lake Turkana (2)
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Kalahari Desert (4)
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Libyan Desert (1)
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Limpopo Basin (1)
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Limpopo Belt (1)
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Madagascar
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Antananarivo Madagascar (1)
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Mozambique Belt (2)
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North Africa
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Algeria (5)
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Atlas Mountains
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Moroccan Atlas Mountains
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Anti-Atlas (1)
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High Atlas (1)
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Egypt
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Eastern Desert (1)
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Nile Delta (1)
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Sinai Egypt (1)
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Illizi Basin (1)
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Libya
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Sirte Basin (3)
-
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Morocco
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Moroccan Atlas Mountains
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Anti-Atlas (1)
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High Atlas (1)
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Rif
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Beni Bouchera (1)
-
-
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Tindouf Basin (1)
-
Tunisia (2)
-
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Nubian Shield (1)
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Red Sea Hills (1)
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Reguibat Ridge (1)
-
Sahara (4)
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Sahel (1)
-
Southern Africa
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Barberton greenstone belt (2)
-
Gariep Belt (1)
-
Kaapvaal Craton (5)
-
Kalahari Craton (3)
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Karoo Basin (2)
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Lesotho (1)
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Namaqualand (1)
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Namaqualand metamorphic complex (1)
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Namibia (7)
-
South Africa
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Bushveld Complex (7)
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Eastern Cape Province South Africa (2)
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Free State South Africa
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Vredefort Dome (3)
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KwaZulu-Natal South Africa (1)
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Limpopo South Africa (1)
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Merensky Reef (1)
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Mpumalanga South Africa
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Barberton South Africa (1)
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Northern Cape Province South Africa (2)
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Witwatersrand (1)
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Zimbabwe (1)
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Volta Basin (1)
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West Africa
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Benue Valley (1)
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Cameroon (2)
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Chad (1)
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Ghana (1)
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Mauritania (2)
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Niger (2)
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Nigeria
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Niger Delta (1)
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Taoudenni Basin (1)
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West African Craton (2)
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Zimbabwe Craton (1)
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Antarctica
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Antarctic ice sheet
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West Antarctic ice sheet (2)
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Antarctic Peninsula (2)
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East Antarctica (5)
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Ellsworth Land (2)
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Larsemann Hills (2)
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Marie Byrd Land (2)
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Queen Maud Land
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Sor-Rondane Mountains (1)
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Ross Island (1)
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Transantarctic Mountains
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Pensacola Mountains (1)
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Shackleton Range (1)
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Victoria Land
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McMurdo dry valleys (1)
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Terra Nova Bay (1)
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Wilson Terrane (2)
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Arctic Ocean
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Barents Sea (3)
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Beaufort Sea (1)
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Chukchi Sea (1)
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East Siberian Sea (1)
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Kara Sea (1)
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Laptev Sea (3)
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Lomonosov Ridge (1)
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Nares Strait (1)
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Norwegian Sea
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Haltenbanken (5)
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Voring Plateau (2)
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Arctic region
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Greenland
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East Greenland (1)
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Fiskenaesset Greenland (1)
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Ilimaussaq (2)
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South Greenland (3)
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West Greenland (2)
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Russian Arctic
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Franz Josef Land (1)
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Wrangel Island (1)
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asbestos deposits (2)
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Asia
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Altai Mountains
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Gorny Altai (4)
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Altai Russian Federation
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Amur region (2)
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Arabian Peninsula
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Kuwait (4)
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Oman
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Saudi Arabia
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Ghawar Field (4)
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United Arab Emirates
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Yemen (2)
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Baikal region (7)
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Buryat Russian Federation (9)
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Central Asia
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Kazakhstan
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Kokchetav Kazakhstan
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Tengiz Field (2)
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Pamirs (3)
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Chukotka Russian Federation
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Chukchi Peninsula (1)
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Far East
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Borneo
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Brunei (1)
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East Malaysia
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Sarawak Malaysia (3)
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Kalimantan Indonesia
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Burma (5)
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China
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Bohaiwan Basin (7)
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Heilongjiang China
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Dongying Depression (4)
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Shanxi China (2)
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Sichuan Basin (27)
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Songliao Basin (8)
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Sulu Terrane (3)
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Xianshuihe fault zone (1)
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Xinjiang China
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Junggar (1)
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Tarim Basin (11)
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Xizang China
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Gangdese Belt (3)
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Lhasa Block (2)
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Yangtze Platform (3)
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Indonesia
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Sumatra (1)
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Japan
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Chichibu Belt (1)
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Honshu
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Okayama Japan (1)
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Kyushu
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Fukuoka Japan (1)
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Nagasaki Japan
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Unzen (1)
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Mie Japan (1)
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Sambagawa Belt (1)
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Shikoku
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Ehime Japan (1)
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Korea
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South Korea (1)
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Malaysia
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East Malaysia
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Sarawak Malaysia (3)
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Mongolia
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Khubsugul Mongolia (1)
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Philippine Islands
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Mount Pinatubo (1)
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Taiwan
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Chelungpu Fault (1)
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Thailand (2)
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Gobi Desert (2)
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Indian Peninsula
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Ghats
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Haryana India (1)
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Karnataka India (2)
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Narmada-Son Lineament (1)
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Northeastern India
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Orissa India (2)
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Sikkim India (1)
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Singhbhum shear zone (1)
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West Bengal India
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Indus Basin (2)
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Jammu and Kashmir
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Kohistan (1)
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Irkutsk Russian Federation
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Karakoram (2)
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Khakasiya Russian Federation (1)
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Kuznetsk Basin (2)
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Ob River (1)
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Zabaykalskiy Russian Federation
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Mesozoic
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Cretaceous
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Jurassic
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Arab Formation (5)
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lower Mesozoic (3)
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Triassic
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Lower Triassic
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Middle Triassic
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Upper Triassic
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Chinle Formation (2)
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paragneiss (3)
-
-
granulites (9)
-
hornfels (1)
-
impactites
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impact breccia
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suevite (3)
-
-
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itabirite (1)
-
marbles (16)
-
metaigneous rocks
-
metabasalt (2)
-
metabasite (4)
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metagabbro (1)
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metagranite (2)
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metaperidotite (1)
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serpentinite (5)
-
-
metaplutonic rocks (1)
-
metasedimentary rocks
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metachert (2)
-
metagraywacke (1)
-
metapelite (6)
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metasandstone (2)
-
paragneiss (3)
-
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metasomatic rocks
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fenite (1)
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greisen (3)
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serpentinite (5)
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skarn (22)
-
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metavolcanic rocks (9)
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migmatites (5)
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mylonites
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blastomylonite (1)
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pseudotachylite (6)
-
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phyllites (2)
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quartzites (13)
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schists
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blueschist (6)
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chlorite schist (1)
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greenstone (2)
-
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slates (3)
-
-
metamorphism (112)
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metasomatism (98)
-
meteorites
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Allan Hills Meteorites
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ALH 84001 (1)
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Dar al Gani Meteorites
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DaG 476 (1)
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Elephant Moraine Meteorites
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EETA 79001 (1)
-
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iron meteorites
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octahedrite
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Northwest Africa Meteorites (1)
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Queen Alexandra Range Meteorites
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QUE 94201 (1)
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stony irons
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pallasite (1)
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stony meteorites
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acapulcoite (1)
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achondrites
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angrite
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D'Orbigny Meteorite (1)
-
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aubrite (1)
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eucrite (2)
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howardite (1)
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lunar meteorites (3)
-
Martian meteorites
-
ALH 84001 (1)
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SNC Meteorites
-
chassignite
-
Chassigny Meteorite (1)
-
-
nakhlite (1)
-
shergottite
-
DaG 476 (1)
-
EETA 79001 (1)
-
QUE 94201 (1)
-
-
-
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ureilite (2)
-
-
chondrites
-
carbonaceous chondrites
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CI chondrites (1)
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CM chondrites (1)
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CV chondrites
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Allende Meteorite (1)
-
-
-
enstatite chondrites (2)
-
Kaidun Meteorite (1)
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ordinary chondrites
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H chondrites
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Tieschitz Meteorite (1)
-
-
-
-
-
-
meteorology (1)
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Mexico
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Chiapas Mexico (1)
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Chihuahua Mexico (1)
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Durango Mexico
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Guanajuato Mexico (1)
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Colima (1)
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Michoacan Mexico (2)
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Michoacan-Guanajuato volcanic field (2)
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Nayarit Mexico (1)
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Oaxaca Mexico (1)
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Popocatepetl (1)
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Puebla Mexico (2)
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Trans-Mexican volcanic belt (4)
-
-
mineral deposits, genesis (131)
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mineral exploration (43)
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minerals (59)
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mining geology (4)
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Mohorovicic discontinuity (1)
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Moon (35)
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mud volcanoes (2)
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nitrogen
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N-15/N-14 (5)
-
-
noble gases
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argon
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Ar-36 (2)
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Ar-40 (1)
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Ar-40/Ar-36 (1)
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Ar-40/Ar-39 (9)
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helium
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He-3 (7)
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He-4 (2)
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He-4/He-3 (3)
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krypton
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Kr-84 (1)
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neon
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radon (2)
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xenon (6)
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nodules (2)
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nonmetal deposits (4)
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nonmetals (1)
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North America
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Appalachian Basin (9)
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Appalachians
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Appalachian Plateau (1)
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Piedmont
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Inner Piedmont (2)
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Southern Appalachians (3)
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Valley and Ridge Province (1)
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Basin and Range Province
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Great Basin (2)
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Canadian Shield
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Churchill Province
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Flin Flon Belt (1)
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Grenville Province
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Nain Province (1)
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Superior Province
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Abitibi Belt (5)
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Disturbed Belt (1)
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Great Lakes
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Great Lakes region (1)
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Okanogan Range (1)
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Saint Elias Mountains (1)
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Shuswap Complex (1)
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Western Canada Sedimentary Basin (5)
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Western Interior
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Western Interior Seaway (2)
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Williston Basin (13)
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nuclear facilities (1)
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Ocean Drilling Program
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Leg 104 (1)
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Leg 152 (1)
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Leg 155
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ODP Site 931 (1)
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ODP Site 936 (1)
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ODP Site 940 (1)
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ODP Site 944 (1)
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ODP Site 946 (1)
-
-
Leg 164
-
ODP Site 994 (1)
-
ODP Site 995 (1)
-
ODP Site 997 (1)
-
-
Leg 166
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ODP Site 1003 (1)
-
-
Leg 173 (1)
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Leg 194 (2)
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Leg 202
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ODP Site 1233 (1)
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ODP Site 801 (1)
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-
ocean floors (10)
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Oceania
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Melanesia
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Micronesia
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Polynesia
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Hawaii
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Honolulu County Hawaii
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-
-
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Kauai County Hawaii
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Mauna Loa (1)
-
-
-
-
oceanography (2)
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oil and gas fields (132)
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orogeny (51)
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oxygen
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O-17 (2)
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O-17/O-16 (3)
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O-18 (1)
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O-18/O-16 (59)
-
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Pacific Ocean
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East Pacific
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Northeast Pacific
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Clarion fracture zone (1)
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Clipperton fracture zone (1)
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Gulf of California (2)
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Juan de Fuca Ridge
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Mendocino fracture zone (2)
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Peru-Chile Trench (1)
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Southeast Pacific
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Tonga Trench (1)
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-
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Equatorial Pacific (1)
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North Pacific
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Northeast Pacific
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Clarion fracture zone (1)
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Clipperton fracture zone (1)
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Gulf of California (2)
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Juan de Fuca Ridge
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Endeavour Ridge (1)
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Mendocino fracture zone (2)
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Northwest Pacific
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East China Sea (1)
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Emperor Seamounts (1)
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South China Sea
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Gulf of Thailand (1)
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Malay Basin (2)
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Yellow Sea
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Bohai Sea
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Bohai Bay (1)
-
-
-
-
-
South Pacific
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Chatham Rise (1)
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Southeast Pacific
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Tonga Trench (1)
-
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Southwest Pacific
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Bismarck Sea
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Manus Basin
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PACMANUS hydrothermal field (1)
-
-
-
Campbell Plateau (1)
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Coral Sea
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Great Barrier Reef (1)
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Marion Plateau (2)
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Great South Basin (1)
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-
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West Pacific
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Northwest Pacific
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East China Sea (1)
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Emperor Seamounts (1)
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Pigafetta Basin (1)
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South China Sea
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Gulf of Thailand (1)
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Malay Basin (2)
-
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Yellow Sea
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Bohai Sea
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Bohai Bay (1)
-
-
-
-
Southwest Pacific
-
Bismarck Sea
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Manus Basin
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PACMANUS hydrothermal field (1)
-
-
-
Campbell Plateau (1)
-
Coral Sea
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Great Barrier Reef (1)
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Marion Plateau (2)
-
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Great South Basin (1)
-
-
-
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Pacific region (1)
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paleoclimatology (36)
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paleoecology (11)
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paleogeography (50)
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paleomagnetism (57)
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paleontology (3)
-
Paleozoic
-
Acatlan Complex (2)
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Arbuckle Group (1)
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Berea Sandstone (4)
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Bowers Supergroup (1)
-
Cambrian
-
Kanmantoo Group (1)
-
Lower Cambrian (11)
-
Middle Cambrian (4)
-
Upper Cambrian
-
Copper Ridge Dolomite (1)
-
Eau Claire Formation (1)
-
Goldenville Formation (1)
-
Mount Simon Sandstone (2)
-
-
-
Carboniferous
-
Amsden Formation (1)
-
Benxi Formation (1)
-
Huanglong Formation (1)
-
Lower Carboniferous
-
Dinantian (1)
-
-
Mississippian
-
Barnett Shale (5)
-
Chainman Shale (1)
-
Lower Mississippian
-
Kayak Shale (2)
-
Lodgepole Formation (2)
-
Osagian
-
Keokuk Limestone (2)
-
-
-
Madison Group (2)
-
Middle Mississippian
-
Visean (1)
-
-
Sunbury Shale (1)
-
Upper Mississippian
-
Chesterian
-
Cypress Sandstone (1)
-
-
Fayetteville Formation (1)
-
Greenbrier Limestone (1)
-
Hartselle Sandstone (1)
-
Meramecian
-
Saint Louis Limestone (1)
-
Warsaw Formation (2)
-
-
-
-
Pennsylvanian
-
Herrin Coal Member (1)
-
Lower Pennsylvanian
-
Bashkirian (1)
-
-
Middle Pennsylvanian
-
Atokan
-
Atoka Formation (1)
-
-
Desmoinesian (1)
-
Moscovian (1)
-
-
Upper Pennsylvanian
-
Canyon Group (1)
-
Cisco Group (2)
-
Holder Formation (1)
-
Missourian
-
Kansas City Group (1)
-
Lansing Group (1)
-
-
Virgilian (2)
-
-
-
Upper Carboniferous
-
Uralian (1)
-
-
-
Catskill Formation (1)
-
Chattanooga Shale (1)
-
Devonian
-
Beaverhill Lake Group (2)
-
Gile Mountain Formation (1)
-
Keg River Formation (1)
-
Lower Devonian
-
Shap Granite (1)
-
-
Middle Devonian
-
Givetian (1)
-
Mahantango Formation (1)
-
Marcellus Shale (8)
-
Onondaga Limestone (1)
-
Sylvania Formation (1)
-
-
Slave Point Formation (1)
-
Swan Hills Formation (2)
-
Thirtyone Formation (5)
-
Upper Devonian
-
Famennian
-
Wabamun Group (1)
-
-
Frasnian
-
Leduc Formation (1)
-
-
Grosmont Formation (4)
-
Jefferson Group (2)
-
Kanayut Conglomerate (1)
-
Ohio Shale (1)
-
-
Waterways Formation (2)
-
-
Endicott Group (1)
-
Knox Group (2)
-
Laborcita Formation (1)
-
Lisburne Group (2)
-
lower Paleozoic
-
Penobscot Formation (1)
-
Rose Run Sandstone (1)
-
-
Matapedia Group (1)
-
middle Paleozoic (1)
-
New Albany Shale (1)
-
Ordovician
-
Lower Ordovician
-
Arenigian (2)
-
Beekmantown Group (1)
-
Ellenburger Group (4)
-
Tremadocian (2)
-
-
Middle Ordovician
-
Black River Group (1)
-
Deicke Bentonite Bed (1)
-
Millbrig Bentonite Bed (1)
-
Saint Peter Sandstone (2)
-
Simpson Group (1)
-
-
Miramichi Group (1)
-
Montoya Group (1)
-
Tetagouche Group (1)
-
Trenton Group (3)
-
Upper Ordovician
-
Bighorn Dolomite (1)
-
Caradocian
-
Borrowdale Volcanic Group (3)
-
-
Red River Formation (1)
-
Wufeng Formation (9)
-
-
Utica Shale (2)
-
-
Permian
-
Chase Group (2)
-
Echooka Formation (1)
-
Guadalupian
-
Brushy Canyon Formation (1)
-
Cherry Canyon Formation (1)
-
Tansill Formation (1)
-
-
Khuff Formation (1)
-
Lower Permian
-
Al Khlata Formation (1)
-
Cherry Canyon Formation (1)
-
Leonardian
-
Clear Fork Group (3)
-
-
Qixia Formation (1)
-
Wolfcampian (9)
-
-
Maokou Formation (1)
-
Meade Peak Member (1)
-
Middle Permian (1)
-
Park City Formation (1)
-
Phosphoria Formation (2)
-
Upper Permian
-
Permian-Triassic boundary (1)
-
Raniganj Formation (1)
-
Salado Formation (1)
-
Zechstein (1)
-
-
Yates Formation (1)
-
-
Silurian
-
Bass Islands Dolomite (1)
-
Fusselman Dolomite (1)
-
Lower Silurian
-
Llandovery
-
Aeronian (1)
-
-
Qalibah Formation (1)
-
Tuscarora Formation (1)
-
-
Middle Silurian
-
Clinton Group (1)
-
Rose Hill Formation (1)
-
-
Upper Silurian
-
Ludlow
-
Ludfordian (1)
-
-
Wristen Formation (1)
-
-
-
Supai Formation (1)
-
Tensleep Sandstone (2)
-
upper Paleozoic
-
Bakken Formation (7)
-
Kaskaskia Sequence (1)
-
Shanxi Formation (2)
-
-
Waits River Formation (1)
-
Woodford Shale (5)
-
-
palynomorphs
-
Dinoflagellata (2)
-
miospores
-
pollen (3)
-
-
-
paragenesis (48)
-
permafrost (5)
-
petroleum
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natural gas
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coalbed methane (3)
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shale gas (29)
-
-
shale oil (10)
-
-
petrology (46)
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Phanerozoic (5)
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phase equilibria (82)
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phosphate deposits (2)
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phosphorus (3)
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placers
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stream placers (2)
-
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planetology (6)
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Plantae
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algae
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Coccolithophoraceae (1)
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diatoms (1)
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nannofossils (4)
-
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Bryophyta
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Musci (1)
-
-
Pteridophyta
-
Pteridophyllen (1)
-
-
Spermatophyta
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Angiospermae (1)
-
-
-
plate tectonics (101)
-
pollution (34)
-
potash (1)
-
Precambrian
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Archean
-
Aravalli System (1)
-
Fig Tree Group (1)
-
J-M Reef (1)
-
Neoarchean (7)
-
Paleoarchean (1)
-
Singhbhum Granite (1)
-
Taihua Group (1)
-
Timiskaming Group (3)
-
-
Brockman Iron Formation (1)
-
Hadean (1)
-
Hamersley Group (1)
-
Kisseynew Complex (1)
-
Laramie anorthosite complex (1)
-
Lewisian Complex (1)
-
Minas Supergroup (1)
-
Prince Albert Group (1)
-
Stillwater Complex (1)
-
Transvaal Supergroup (2)
-
Uinta Mountain Group (1)
-
upper Precambrian
-
Proterozoic
-
Athabasca Formation (2)
-
Damara System (1)
-
Great Oxidation Event (1)
-
Huronian
-
Gowganda Formation (1)
-
-
Lewisian (2)
-
Mesoproterozoic
-
Belt Supergroup (2)
-
Gawler Range Volcanics (2)
-
Hiltaba Suite (2)
-
-
Neoproterozoic
-
Ediacaran (4)
-
Riphean
-
upper Riphean (1)
-
-
Tonian (1)
-
Torridonian (1)
-
Vendian (2)
-
-
Paleoproterozoic
-
Baker Lake Group (2)
-
Dhanjori Group (2)
-
Francevillian (1)
-
Orosirian (1)
-
Rooiberg Group (1)
-
Wollaston Group (2)
-
-
Windermere System (1)
-
-
-
Ventersdorp Supergroup (2)
-
Witwatersrand Supergroup (1)
-
-
problematic fossils (1)
-
Pterobranchia (3)
-
reclamation (2)
-
reefs (7)
-
remote sensing (30)
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reservoirs (2)
-
roads (1)
-
rock mechanics (22)
-
sea water (10)
-
sea-floor spreading (4)
-
sea-level changes (29)
-
sedimentary petrology (12)
-
sedimentary rocks
-
bauxite (2)
-
carbonate rocks
-
boundstone (1)
-
chalk (11)
-
dolostone (33)
-
grainstone (13)
-
limestone
-
biomicrite (1)
-
biosparite (1)
-
calcarenite (3)
-
dolomitic limestone (1)
-
micrite (3)
-
-
packstone (10)
-
travertine (1)
-
wackestone (11)
-
-
chemically precipitated rocks
-
chert (14)
-
evaporites
-
salt (4)
-
-
flint (2)
-
iron formations
-
banded iron formations (4)
-
-
phosphate rocks (2)
-
siliceous sinter (1)
-
tufa (1)
-
weathering crust (1)
-
-
clastic rocks
-
arenite
-
litharenite (3)
-
quartz arenite (2)
-
-
argillite (3)
-
arkose (4)
-
bentonite (14)
-
black shale (13)
-
claystone (2)
-
conglomerate
-
quartz-pebble conglomerate (1)
-
-
diamictite (2)
-
diatomite (1)
-
eolianite (1)
-
graywacke (3)
-
marl (6)
-
mudstone (62)
-
orthoquartzite (1)
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porcellanite (1)
-
radiolarite (1)
-
red beds (3)
-
sandstone (136)
-
shale (115)
-
siltstone (27)
-
tillite (2)
-
-
coal
-
anthracite (1)
-
bituminous coal (1)
-
lignite (1)
-
-
gas sands (2)
-
gas shale (9)
-
oil sands (4)
-
oil shale
-
kukersite (1)
-
-
-
sedimentary structures
-
bedding plane irregularities
-
fossil ice wedges (1)
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sand ridges (1)
-
-
biogenic structures
-
algal structures
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algal mounds (1)
-
-
bioherms (1)
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bioturbation (6)
-
carbonate banks (2)
-
microbial mats
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cyanobacterial mats (1)
-
-
stromatolites (1)
-
thrombolites (1)
-
-
planar bedding structures
-
bedding (8)
-
cross-bedding (3)
-
cross-stratification (1)
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cyclothems (1)
-
laminations (9)
-
massive bedding (2)
-
ripple drift-cross laminations (2)
-
sand bodies (1)
-
varves (2)
-
-
secondary structures
-
concretions (3)
-
-
soft sediment deformation
-
olistostromes (1)
-
-
-
sedimentation (43)
-
sediments
-
carbonate sediments (3)
-
clastic sediments
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alluvium (8)
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boulders (7)
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clay (26)
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colluvium (2)
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diamicton (1)
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drift (1)
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dust (3)
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erratics (4)
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gravel (3)
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kaolin (3)
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loess (5)
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mud (5)
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Texas
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GeoRef Categories
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neutron scattering methods
An introduction to the use of neutron scattering methods in mineral sciences Available to Purchase
Determining the porosity of mudrocks using methodological pluralism Available to Purchase
Abstract Porosity of shales is an important parameter that impacts rock strength for seal or wellbore integrity, gas-in-place calculations for unconventional resources or the diffusional solute and gas transport in these microporous materials. From a well section obtained from the Mont Terri Underground Rock Laboratory in St Ursanne, Switzerland, we determined porosity, pore size distribution and specific surface areas on a set of 13 Opalinus Clay samples. The porosity methods employed are helium-pycnometry, water and mercury injection porosimetry, liquid saturation and immersion, and low pressure N 2 sorption, as well as small-angle to ultra-small-angle neutron scattering (SANS–USANS). These were used in addition to mineralogical and geochemical methods for sample analysis that comprise X-ray diffraction, X-ray fluorescence, total organic carbon content and cation exchange capacity. We find large variations in total porosity, ranging from approximately 23% for the neutron-scattering method to approximately 10% for mercury injection porosimetry. These differences can partly be related to differences in pore accessibility, while no or negligible inaccessible porosity was found. Pore volume distributions between neutron scattering and low-pressure sorption compare very well but differ significantly from those obtained from mercury porosimetry: this is realistic since the latter provides information on pore throats only, and the two former methods on pore throats and pore bodies. Finally, we find that specific surface areas determined using low-pressure sorption and neutron scattering match well.
Benchmarking the Inelastic Neutron Scattering Soil Carbon Method Available to Purchase
Combined Use of Neutron-Scattering, Fluid-Invasion, and Image-Analysis Techniques to Assess Pore Structure, Accessibility, and Connectivity in Tight Rock Available to Purchase
Abstract Low-permeability (unconventional) reservoirs exhibit heterogeneities at multiple scales that affect flow. While macro-scale heterogeneities are typically evaluated using well-test or production-analysis techniques, core-scale (and finer) analyses are relied upon to evaluate micro-and nano-scale heterogeneities. Pore structure is a known control on flow at the core scale; for unconventional reservoirs, however, pore-size distributions, pore accessibility, and connectivity are challenging to evaluate. In the present study, a combination of neutron-scattering methods, fluid invasion, and imaging techniques were used to evaluate the degree of pore accessibility and connectivity in a tight oil reservoir within the Cardium Fm. of western Canada. In previous work, cm- to sub-cm scale variations in lithology (elementary lithological components, or ELCs) have been shown to affect flow at the core scale significantly and that reservoir quality varies with the ELCs. The fundamental controls on flow within these ELCs ( i.e. at the pore scale), however, are poorly understood. The aim of the present study was to gain insight into these controls. Small-angle and ultra-small angle neutron scattering (SANS/USANS) has revealed that while the Cardium samples exhibit a wide range in pore-size distribution, the accessibility of pores varies significantly with pore size. In particular, the large pore fraction seems to be less accessible than the small pore fraction, which is counter-intuitive. Mercury intrusion data partially support this finding. High-resolution scanning electron microscopy (SEM) imaging suggests that pores within mineral grains may indeed be disconnected/isolated. The SANS/USANS interpretations are based on a simple 2-component (pores + average mineral phase) model, however; detailed mineral mapping reveals that several components may affect significantly the scattering behavior which leads to the conclusion that a multi-phase model may be more appropriate, and that use of the conventional 2-phase model could lead to errors in calculated pore-size distributions and the percentage of disconnected porosity.
Logging of drill holes by the neutron, gamma method, and gamma ray scattering Available to Purchase
Neutron total scattering method : simultaneous determination of long-range and short-range order in disordered materials Available to Purchase
Method of radial sounding and elemental analysis of formations during well logging using neutron inelastic scattering gamma time-of-flight spectrometry Available to Purchase
An improved method for evaluating fracture density using pulsed neutron capture logging Available to Purchase
Total Scattering Studies of Natural and Synthetic Ferrihydrite Available to Purchase
Abstract Total scattering experiments using synchrotron X-rays and spallation neutrons are providing new insights into the structural characteristics of synthetic and natural ferrihydrite, a poorly crystalline nanomineral that has industrial applications and is pervasive in the environment. Modern synchrotron and neutron facilities with dedicated total scattering beamlines now enable the collection of scattering data for ferrihydrite to large scattering angles and with superior signal/noise ratio. The pair distribution function, or PDF, derived from these scattering data is a real-space depiction of atomic structure with exceptional resolution. A number of recent high-energy X-ray total scattering studies have focused on as-precipitated, pure synthetic ferrihydrite of different particle sizes, as well as ferrihydrite co-precipitated with environmentally relevant impurities, such as aluminum, arsenic, chromium, and silicon. The findings from these investigations have contributed to our understanding of the extended framework of iron and oxygen in ferrihydrite, and the specific associations of these various impurities over a range of impurity content. In situ and ex situ synchrotron total scattering methods are being applied in studies of the structural, physical, chemical, and magnetic changes taking place during ferrihydrite transformations. Neutron total scattering is shedding new light on the association of water with the surfaces and in the bulk structure of ferrihydrite. In several of these studies, real-space fitting of PDFs derived from both neutrons and X-rays are being used to test both new and previously proposed structural models for synthetic ferrihydrite. Total scattering and PDF analysis is also revealing new insights into the structural characteristics of different samples of natural ferrihydrite that were formed in a diverse range of geochemical settings. The results of these studies, combined with new PDF data for a suite of natural samples presented in this review, show that the structure of natural ferrihydrite can vary almost continuously between high- and low-crystallinity end members. The natural samples with the greatest degree of structural order are virtually identical to pure laboratory ‘six-line’ ferrihydrite. Interestingly, total scattering shows that the majority of the natural ferrihydrite samples in the suite presented here are less crystalline than ‘two-line’ ferrihydrite, the variety of synthetic ferrihydrite that is often assumed in laboratory studies to be equivalent to natural ferrihydrite. The implications of this decreased crystallinity are not yet fully understood in terms of evaluating and predicting the chemical behavior of natural ferrihydrite in the environment.
Neutron powder diffraction and Rietveld analysis; applications to crystal-chemical studies of minerals at non-ambient conditions Available to Purchase
Fast numerical simulation of logging-while-drilling gamma-ray spectroscopy measurements Available to Purchase
NEUTRON SPECTROSCOPIC STUDY OF SYNTHETIC ALUNITE AND OXONIUM-SUBSTITUTED ALUNITE Available to Purchase
Diffraction techniques: Shedding light on structural changes at extreme conditions Available to Purchase
Abstract Following the discovery of X-ray scattering on crystalline materials, crystallography and the experimental application of diffraction techniques have resulted in our current understanding of the atomic arrangements and bonding in condensed phases. Soon after Max von Laue’s famous experiments in 1912 (Fig. 1 ), for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1914, a period of pioneering work began. Starting with father and son Bragg in the early twenties, the “century of crystal-structure determination” brought insight to the atomic view of solid matter, which only had been a matter of speculation before the discovery of scattering by crystals. Scattering techniques were de-veloped over the subsequent years, not only using X-ray radiation, but also involving electron and neutron scattering phenomena. Nowadays, with the evolution of powerful radiation sources, such as neutron spallation sources or synchrotron radiation facilities, the nature of atomic structure can be visualised even for the most complex macromolec-ular systems which include thousands of atoms. The pioneering work of structure solution was carried out at ambient conditions, starting with basic structures such as of sodium chloride, zincblende or diamond. Structure solution was not straightforward from the beginning. The so-called “phase problem”, i.e. the fact that the amount of phase shift on wave interference could not be determined experimentally from diffraction data, kept crystallographers busy for decades. It resulted in fundamental approaches, such as the Fourier summation of a set of squared (but not phased) amplitudes as introduced by A.L. Patterson (1934) . H. Hauptman and J. Karle (1950) employed statistics and probability distributions as applied in the “direct methods” to overcome the phase problem.
Lattice dynamics, inelastic neutron scattering and thermodynamic properties of minerals Available to Purchase
Abstract Understanding the structure of the Earth's interior, only indirectly inferred from seismic observations, requires modelling based on structural data, and the thermodynamic properties and phase relations of minerals at high pressures and temperatures. Since experimental studies under these conditions are often limited, particularly on high pressure phases that can be synthesised in only very small amounts, an important objective of earth sciences is to develop the capability of predicting these properties under various pressure and temperature conditions prevalent in the Earth. It is now possible to theoretically explore the entire spectrum of thermal vibrations of crystals using lattice dynamical methods. The vibrational average, known as the phonon density of states, is the basis for the calculation of the various thermodynamic properties. The accuracy of the theoretical calculations of the phonon density of states and the phonon dispersion relations can be evaluated by comparison with their experimental measurements by inelastic neutron scattering on large powder and single crystal samples, respectively. In this paper, the theory of lattice dynamics and inelastic neutron scattering and the experimental measurements using neutrons from reactor and spallation sources are reviewed, along with the derivation of thermodynamic properties from the calculated phonon density of states. Work accomplished in this area, both theoretical and experimental, on a number of major rock forming silicate minerals, including olivine (forsterite and fayalite), enstatite, various garnets and the aluminium silicate polymorphs (andalusite, sillimanite and kyanite) are discussed. We start with a discussion of lattice dynamics in a single crystal. A crystal is often
Atomic displacement parameters from diffraction studies: The experimental evidence Available to Purchase
Abstract X-ray and neutron single crystal diffraction, now paralleled by powder diffraction techniques, is the principal tool for the experimental investigation of crystal structures. For the most part the information obtained is the volume averaged model of the atom arrangement in the crystal, so that only a small subset of the published structural studies advance beyond the determination of atomic positions and site occupancies in the crystallographic cell. However, it is well proven that the analysis of accurately measured diffraction intensities may yield important physico-chemical information, such as the electron density distribution, the vibrational behaviour of the atoms about their average positions, or the potential energy of the molecular conformation in the crystal. The main scope of this contribution is to emphasise the importance of the experimentally derived atomic displacement parameters obtained by diffraction methods from ordered crystal structures. A few concepts will be illustrated using cuprite-type structures as case studies: (1) the advantage of neutron nuclear scattering over X-ray scattering by electrons in discriminating the vibrational contribution from the charge density contribution to the apparent atomic displacement behaviour; (2) the use of the temperature dependence of the atomic displacement parameters in the detection of site disorder effects; (3) the comparison of atomic displacement parameters as extracted from diffraction and spectroscopic data; (4) the use of neutron single crystal diffraction in detecting the anharmonic contribution to the overall harmonic atomic vibrational behaviour. It is argued that the accurate measurement