The state of geoscience education, in terms of numbers of teachers, students taught, and perceived importance, has been lagging behind the other science disciplines for decades. Part of the reason for this is that geology has commonly been seen as a “derivative” science, by educators, especially when compared to its “experimental” counterparts (for instance, physics and chemistry). However, with current global issues (climate change, scarcity of clean water, increasing fossil fuel usage) facing the populations of the world, being geoscience literate is a must. We show that, in fact, the geological sciences have their own philosophical structure, being both historical and hermeneutic, and it is this specific structure that aids students in addressing these global issues. In addition, we discuss the reasons for using historical controversies as a pedagogical tool for geoscience instruction. The history of geology is rife with scientific controversy, and the use of such a strategy has been shown to be effective for developing students' interest in the content, for sharpening critical-thinking skills, as well as for emphasizing the nature of science. This chapter consolidates the knowledge base by describing the structure of the geosciences in terms of its philosophical, theoretical, and cognitive frameworks. We find that geoscience instruction could well be improved by incorporating history and philosophy of science and employing historical case studies, especially those involving controversy. Two well-known controversies, continental drift/plate tectonics and the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event, illustrate these frameworks.

Successful and rigorous qualitative research requires careful planning of purpose, methods, and theoretical frameworks. The qualitative researcher must locate the study in time, space, and culture, and must also locate herself or himself in the study. This is in order to thoroughly and publicly explore his or her purpose, role, and potential biases. Through this process, the researcher defines the ways in which these and other factors inform the research. Finally, the qualitative researcher must take thought of methodology—as opposed to method—and must understand the difference between the two. In this paper, I review basic principles of qualitative inquiry with regard to the nature of qualitative data and theoretical frameworks. I then explore the issues of location and methodology as applied to qualitative inquiry in geoscience education research through examples relevant to the discipline. I describe the process of locating the study, and the ways in which the researcher defines his or her place therein. I then discuss the differences between method and methodology. Finally, I review four specific methodologies, including hermeneutics, phenomenology, ethnography, and policy analysis.

Civilizations have existed in the proximity of the Indus River Valley regions of modern Pakistan and India from at least 3000 B.C. onward. Geographically, the region encompasses a swath of the Makran coast, the alluvial plain and delta of the Indus River, and the Runn of Kachchh. The regional tectonic setting is controlled by the collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates and the subduction of the Arabian plate beneath the Eurasian plate. Earthquakes have undoubtedly struck many ancient sites, but finding their footprint in a riparian environment represents a challenge for archaeoseismology. However, some insight into seismoarchaeological indicators can be gleaned from examining the earthquake effects produced by historical infrequent large-magnitude events that have occurred in the region. Studies of these earthquakes emphasize the importance of repeated reconstructions, direct faulting, river damming from seismic uplift, and coastal elevation change as indicators of past earthquakes. Examples of past earthquake effects are presented for Banbhore in the Indus Delta, Brahmanabad, and the Harappan sites of Kalibangan and Dholavira. Future hermeneutic investigations in the region need to incorporate a seismological/tectonic perspective and not rely solely on serendipity.