ABSTRACT Every astronaut who walked on the Moon trained in Flagstaff, Arizona. In the early 1960s, scientists at the newly formed United States Geological Survey (USGS) Branch of Astrogeology led this training, teaching geologic principles and field techniques to the astronaut crews. USGS scientists and engineers also developed and tested scientific instrument prototypes, and communication and transportation technologies that would aid in lunar exploration. Astronomers and cartographers based at the USGS and Lowell Observatory, using telescopes at Lowell Observatory and the U.S. Naval Observatory, also played a key role, preparing lunar navigation charts and landing site maps. This historical and educational field trip will take participants along a historical path to some of the key sites where the Apollo astronauts trained. Field trip participants will see: (1) Grover , the geologic rover simulator on which the Apollo astronauts trained, which is on display at the USGS Astrogeology Science Center; (2) telescopes at Lowell Observatory used to map the lunar surface, as well as some of the original airbrushed maps; (3) the Bonito Lava Flow training area at Sunset Crater Volcano National Monument; (4) the Cinder Lake crater field, which was created in 1967 to simulate the lunar landscape for training astronauts and testing equipment; and (5) Meteor Crater, the best-preserved exposed impact crater on Earth. During this field trip we celebrate the 50th anniversary of one of the most remarkable events and most significant achievements in the history of humankind. We hope that the sites we visit will connect participants with the experiences of the astronauts and the excitement and inspiration of the origins of human space exploration. We also hope to communicate the historical significance of these sites, facilitate continued visitation of the sites (e.g., through class field trips), and educate the broader scientific and science education communities about the role that Flagstaff scientists and engineers played in the Apollo expeditions to the Moon.

This paper discusses the philosophy and major aspects of the geology training of the Apollo 15 , 16 , and 17 astronauts. This training concentrated on monthly field trips that were intended to develop the crew's observational skills in recognizing basic geologic structures and rocks and translating observations into an interpretative framework for local geologic evolution. Individual field trips became increasingly mission-like as their training matured. The crews worked with predetermined traverses and progressively added diverse operational aspects, such as proper usage of sampling tools, photo-documentation of pertinent features and rocks, simulation of space-suit mobility, and use of a roving vehicle. These exercises also provided simulations and practice for all major science support functions that would reside in Mission Control during the actual mission. This combined training of surface explorers and ground support will be indispensable in rendering future planetary surface operations as efficient and scientifically rewarding as Apollo .

Planning and implementation of astronaut observations and photography from lunar orbit during the Apollo program were based on two expectations: (1) orbiting astronauts would be able to add to our knowledge by describing lunar features from their unique vantage point, and, (2) as illustrated by the Gemini Earth-orbital missions, expertly obtained photographs would allow us to place detailed information from field exploration into a regional context. To achieve these goals, the astronauts had to be thoroughly familiar with concepts of lunar geology and intellectually prepared to note and document the unexpected. This required mission-specific training to add to their store of knowledge about the Moon. Because the activity was not part of the original program objectives, the training was conducted at the behest of the astronauts. The training time grew from occasional briefings on the early flights to extensive classroom sessions and flyover exercises for a formal “experiment” on the last three missions. This chapter summarizes the historical development and salient results of training the Moon-bound astronauts for these tasks. The astronaut-derived orbital observations and photographs increased our knowledge of the Moon beyond that possible from robotic sensors. Outstanding results include: realization of the limitations of photographic film to depict natural lunar surface colors; description and documentation of unknown features on the lunar farside; observation by Apollo 15 of dark-haloed craters that helped in the selection of the Apollo 17 landing site; and real-time confirmation that the “orange soil” discovered at the Apollo 17 site occurs elsewhere on the Moon.

Since the beginning of the U.S. space program, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has trained astronauts in basic earth science topics to support their observations of Earth's surface from low Earth orbit. From its roots in the Apollo geology training campaigns, we describe the evolution of astronaut Earth observation training across human spaceflight programs, with a focus on the training for space shuttle and International Space Station (ISS) missions. Astronauts' Earth observation experiences—both preflight training and interactions with scientists on the ground during spaceflight missions—provide relevant information for defining training requirements for future astronaut exploration missions on other planetary surfaces.

Abstract Images of distant and unknown places have long stimulated the imaginations of both explorers and scientists. The atlas of photographs collected during the Hayden (1872) expedition to the Yellowstone region was essential to its successful advocacy and selection in 1872 as America’s first national park. Photographer William Henry Jackson of the Hayden expedition captured the public’s imagination and support, returning home with a treasure of images that confirmed the existence of western landmarks previously regarded as glorified myths: the Grand Tetons, Old Faithful, and strange pools of boiling hot mud. Fifty years later, photographer Ansel Adams began his long legacy of providing the public with compilations of iconic images of natural wonders that many only see in prints. Photography in space has provided its own bounty. Who can forget the first image of Earthrise taken by astronaut William Anders in 1968 from Apollo 8; the solemnity of the first photos of the surface of the Moon from the Apollo 11 astronauts; and the startling discovery of the tallest mountain in the solar system (Olympus Mons) on the surface of Mars in images sent from Mariner 9? The images from Mariner 9 also allowed for a game-changing discovery. Earlier, based on very limited Mariner 4 data that covered less than 10% of the planet’s surface, Chapman et al. (1968) speculated that “If substantial aqueous erosion features—such as river valleys— were produced during earlier epochs of Mars, we should not expect any trace of them to be visible

Field geological research, as traditionally practiced on Earth, is an extremely flexible science. Although field geologists plan their traverses ahead of time—nowadays with the advantage of remote-sensing data—initial plans are continually modified in response to observations, such that traverses evolve over time. This research modality differs from that utilized in extreme environments on Earth (e.g., on the ocean floor), on the Martian surface by the mobile laboratories Spirit and Opportunity , and by the Apollo astronauts during their explorations of the Moon. Harsh and alien conditions, time constraints, and resource limitations have led to the development of operational modes that provide a constrained and usually lower science return than traditional field geology. However, emerging plans for renewed human exploration of the Moon, Mars, and near-Earth asteroids serve as an opportunity to invent a new paradigm for advanced planetary field geology that embraces coordinated human and robotic research activities. This approach will introduce an operational flexibility that is more like that of traditional field geology on Earth. In addition, human and robotic collaborations, combined with the integration of new “smart” tools, should provide an augmented reality that leads to even greater science return than traditional field geology. In order to take full advantage of these opportunities when planetary field geology again becomes practical, it is imperative for field geologists on Earth to begin right now to learn how best to incorporate advanced technologies into their research. Geologic studies of analog sites on Earth that employ new technology-enabled strategies rather than traditional research methods provide ideal opportunities to test and refine emerging designs for advanced planetary field geologic studies, as well as to gain new insights into terrestrial geologic processes. These operational experiments will be most informative if they embrace the entire geologic research process—including problem definition, field observation, and laboratory analysis—and not simply field work. The results of such comprehensive research can be used to inform the design of a maximally effective training regimen for future astronaut explorers.