Abstract Ion adsorption-type rare earth element (REE) deposits are the predominant source of heavy REE (HREEs) and yttrium in the world. Economic examples of the deposits are confined almost exclusively to areas underlain by granitic rocks in southern China. These deposits are termed “ion adsorption-type” because the weathered granites contain more than ~50% ion-exchangeable REY (REE + Y), relative to whole-rock REY. The ore grades range from 140 to 6,500 ppm (typically ~800 ppm) REY, and some of the deposits are remarkably enriched in HREEs. The Yanshanian (Jurassic-Cretaceous) granites that weather to form the deposits are products of subduction-related or extensional intraplate magmatism. These parent granites for the REE deposits are biotite- and/or muscovite-bearing granites and are characterized by >70% SiO 2 , <0.08% P 2 O 5 , and metaluminous to weakly peraluminous (ASI < 1.1) compositions. The highly differentiated (SiO2 >~75%) muscovite granites are HREE enriched relative to the biotite granites and are notably characterized by occurrences of fluorite and hydrothermal REE-bearing minerals, particularly REE fluorocarbonates that formed in a deuteric alteration event. Magmatic allanite and titanite are either altered to form hydrothermal REE-bearing minerals or almost completely broken down during weathering. The weatherable REE-bearing minerals, including fluorocarbonates, allanite, and titanite, are the source minerals for the ion adsorption ores. The HREE grades of the ion adsorption ores are strongly influenced by the relative abundances and weathering susceptibilities of these REE-bearing minerals in the parent granites. The presence of easily weathered HREE minerals in the underlying granites appears to be the primary control of the HREE-rich deposits, although solution and solid phase chemistry during development of the weathering profile may influence REE fractionation. Monazite, zircon, and xenotime are also present in the granites, but because they are more resistant to chemical weathering, they are typically not a source of REEs in the weathered materials. The REE-bearing minerals are decomposed by acidic soil water at shallow levels in the weathering profile, and the REE 3 + ions move downward in the profile. The REEs are complexed with humic substances, with carbonate and bicarbonate ions, or carried as REE 3+ ions in soil and ground water at a near-neutral pH of 5 to 9. The REE 3 + ions are removed from solution by adsorption onto or incorporated into secondary minerals. The removal from the aqueous phase is due to a pH increase, which results from either water-rock interaction or mixing with a higher pH ground water. The REEs commonly adsorb on the surfaces of kaolinite and halloysite, to form the ion adsorption ores, due to their abundances and points of zero charge. In addition, some REEs are immobilized in secondary minerals consisting mainly of REE-bearing phosphates (e.g., rhabdophane and florencite). In contrast to the other REEs that move downward in the weathering profile, Ce is less mobile and is incorporated into the Mn oxides and cerianite (CeO 2 ) as Ce 4 + under near-surface, oxidizing conditions. As a result, the weathering profile of the deposits can be divided into a REE-leached zone in the upper part of the profile, with a positive Ce anomaly, and a REE accumulation zone with the ion adsorption ores in the lower part of the profile that is characterized by a negative Ce anomaly. The thickness of the weathering profiles generally ranges from 6 to 10 m but can be as much as 30 m and rarely up to 60 m. The negative Ce anomaly in weathered granite terrane is thus a good exploration indicator for ion adsorption ores. A temperate or tropical climate, with moderate to high temperatures and precipitation rates, is essential for chemical weathering and ion adsorption REE ore formation. Low to moderate denudation, characteristic of such a climate in areas of low relief, are favorable for the preservation of thick weathering profiles with the REE orebodies.

Abstract China is the world’s leading rare earth element (REE) producer and hosts a variety of deposit types. Carbonatite-related REE deposits, the most significant deposit type, include two giant deposits presently being mined in China, Bayan Obo and Maoniuping, the first and third largest deposits of this type in the world, respectively. The carbonatite-related deposits host the majority of China’s REE resource and are the primary supplier of the world’s light REE. The REE-bearing clay deposits, or ion adsorption-type deposits, are second in importance and are the main source in China for heavy REE resources. Other REE resources include those within monazite or xenotime placers, beach placers, alkaline granites, pegmatites, and hydrothermal veins, as well as some additional deposit types in which REE are recovered as by-products. Carbonatite-related REE deposits in China occur along craton margins, both in rifts (e.g., Bayan Obo) and in reactivated transpressional margins (e.g., Maoniuping). They comprise those along the northern, eastern, and southern margins of the North China block, and along the western margin of the Yangtze block. Major structural features along the craton margins provide first-order controls for REE-related Proterozoic to Cenozoic carbonatite alkaline complexes; these are emplaced in continental margin rifts or strike-slip faults. The ion adsorption-type REE deposits, mainly situated in the South China block, are genetically linked to the weathering of granite and, less commonly, volcanic rocks and lamprophyres. Indosinian (early Mesozoic) and Yanshanian (late Mesozoic) granites are the most important parent rocks for these REE deposits, although Caledonian (early Paleozoic) granites are also of local importance. The primary REE enrichment is hosted in various mineral phases in the igneous rocks and, during the weathering process, the REE are released and adsorbed by clay minerals in the weathering profile. Currently, these REE-rich clays are primarily mined from open-pit operations in southern China. The complex geologic evolution of China’s Precambrian blocks, particularly the long-term subduction of ocean crust below the North and South China blocks, enabled recycling of REE-rich pelagic sediments into mantle lithosphere. This resulted in the REE-enriched nature of the mantle below the Precambrian cratons, which were reactivated and thus essentially decratonized during various tectonic episodes throughout the Proterozoic and Phanerozoic. Deep fault zones within and along the edges of the blocks, including continental rifts and strike-slip faults, provided pathways for upwelling of mantle material.

Abstract China has been the world’s leading rare earth element (REE) and yttrium producer for more than 20 years and hosts a variety of deposit types. Carbonatite-related REE deposits are the most significant REE deposit type, with REY (REE and yttrium)-bearing clay deposits, or ion adsorption-type deposits, being the primary source of the world’s heavy REEs. Other REY resources in China include those hosted in placers, alkaline granites, pegmatites, and hydrothermal veins, as well as in additional deposit types in which REEs may be recovered as by-product commodities. Carbonatite-related REE deposits in China provide nearly all the light REE production in the world. Two giant deposits are currently being mined in China: Bayan Obo and Maoniuping. The carbonatite-related REE deposits in China occur along the margins of Archean-Paleoproterozoic blocks, including the northern, southern, and eastern margins of the North China craton, and the western margin of the Yangtze craton. The carbonatites were emplaced in continental rifts (e.g., Bayan Obo) or translithospheric strike-slip faults (e.g., Maoniuping) along reactivated craton margins. The craton margins provide the first-order control for carbonatite-related REE resources. Four REE metallogenic belts, including the Proterozoic Langshan-Bayan Obo, late Paleozoic-early Mesozoic eastern Qinling-Dabie, late Mesozoic Chishan-Laiwu-Zibo, and Cenozoic Mianning-Dechang belts, occur along cratonic margins. Geologic and geochemical data demonstrate that the carbonatites in these belts originated from mantle sources that had been previously enriched, most likely by recycled marine sediments through subduction zones during the assembly of continental blocks. Although the generation of carbonatite magma is debated, a plausible mechanism is by liquid immiscibility between silicate and carbonate melts. This process would further enrich REEs in the carbonatite end member during the evolution of mantle-derived magma. The emplacement of carbonatite magma in the upper crust, channeled by translithospheric faults in extensional environments, leads to a rapid decompression of the magma and consequently exsolution of a hydrothermal fluid phase. The fluid is characterized by high temperature (600°–850°C), high pressure (up to 350 MPa), and enrichment in sulfate, CO 2 , K, Na, Ca, Sr, Ba, and REEs. Immiscibility of sulfate melts from the aqueous fluid, and phase separation between CO 2 and water may take place upon fluid cooling. Although both sulfate and chloride have been called upon as important ligands in hydrothermal REE transport, results of our studies suggest that sulfate is more important. The exsolution of a sulfate melt from the primary carbonatite fluid would lead to a significant decrease of the sulfate activity in the fluid and trigger REE precipitation. The subsequent unmixing between CO 2 and water may also play an important role in REE precipitation. Because of the substantial ability of the primary carbonatite fluid to contain REEs, a large-volume magma chamber or huge fluid flux are not necessary for the formation of a giant REE deposit. A dense carbonatite fluid and rapid evolution hinder long distance fluid transportation and distal mineralization. Thus, carbonatite-related alteration and mineralization occur in or proximal to carbonatite dikes and sills, and this is observed in all carbonatite-related REE deposits in China. Ion adsorption-type REE deposits are primarily located in the South China block and are genetically linked to the weathering of granite and, less commonly, volcanic rocks and lamprophyres. Indosinian (early Mesozoic) and Yanshanian (late Mesozoic) granites are the most important parent rocks for these REE deposits. Hydrothermal alteration by fluids exsolved from late Mesozoic granites or related alkaline rocks (e.g., syenite) may have enriched the parent rocks in REEs, particularly the heavy REEs. Furthermore, this alteration process led to the transformation of some primary REE minerals to secondary REE minerals that are more readily broken down during subsequent weathering. During the weathering process, the REEs are released from parent rocks and adsorbed onto kaolinite and halloysite in the weathering profile, and further enriched by the loss of other material to form the ion adsorption-type REE deposits. A warm and humid climate and a low-relief landscape are important characteristics for development of ion adsorption REE deposits.