Abstract We integrate U–Pb zircon geochronology and ɛ Nd (0) values with field mapping to determine which tectonostratigraphic units are represented to the north, south and within the Almora klippe in Kumaun, NW India. Rock in the Almora klippe and north of the Main Central thrust (MCT) have Neoproterozoic ( c. 900 Ma) detrital zircon ages, coupled with similar ɛ Nd (0) (−7.6 to −11.8) values, suggesting that these two units are the same tectonostratigraphic unit, and that the Almora klippe is the southern continuation of the MCT or another thrust in the Greater Himalayan thrust system. However, north of the Almora klippe, detrital zircon age populations establish the presence of Palaeoproterozoic rock instead of the previous interpretation of Neoproterozoic rocks. These Palaeoproterozoic Lesser Himalayan (LH) rocks are carried by the Ramgarh–Munsiari thrust (RMT) dipping south and folded underneath the klippe. South of the klippe, the RMT carries both the less metamorphosed Palaeoproterozoic and Neoproterozoic LH rocks, in disagreement with the idea that only Neoproterozoic–Cambrian LH rocks are present south of Almora klippe. These results suggest that previous cross-sections in Kumaun are incorrect and must be re-evaluated. Supplementary material: U–Pb zircon geochronological data table is available at http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/SUP18777 .

Abstract Two orogen-scale thrusts structurally underneath Greater Himalayan (GH) rocks characterize the structural architecture of Himalaya in central Nepal. The Main Central thrust (MCT) is at the base of the GH with the Lesser Himalayan (LH) Robang Formation in the footwall, which is the hanging wall of the Ramgarh–Munsiari thrust (RMT). At Kodari-Tatopani and Malekhu, U–Pb detrital zircon age populations from the RMT sheet yield a maximum depositional age of c. 1838 and c. 1871 Ma. U–Pb analyses of igneous zircons from the RMT sheet yield a crystallization age of c. 1750 Ma at both Galchhi and Kodari-Tatopani. The ɛNd(0) values of pelitic rocks from the RMT sheet at Kodari-Tatopani range from c. −23 to −25; whereas, GH rocks have values from c. −12 to −18. These data indicate that the RMT sheet carries the Palaeoproterozoic LH rock and the MCT carries the GH rock. At Kodari-Tatopani, the thrust previously mapped as the MCT is interpreted to be the RMT. Positively identifying the RMT sheet in all three locations yields a more accurate kinematic evolution and confirms its orogenic-scale presence in central Nepal. Supplementary material: U–Pb geochronological analyses are available at http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/SUP18775

Abstract South-vergent channel flow from beneath the Tibetan Plateau may have played an important role in forming the Himalaya. The possibility that Greater Himalayan rocks currently exposed in the Himalayan Fold-Thrust Belt flowed at mid-crustal depths before being exhumed is intriguing, and may suggest a natural link between orogenic processes operating under the Tibetan Plateau and in the fold-thrust belt. Conceptual and numeric models for the Himalayan-Tibetan Orogen currently reported in the literature do an admirable job of replicating many of the observable primary geological features and relationships. Ho wever, detailed observations from Greater Himalayan rocks exposed in the fold-thrust belt’s external klippen, and from Lesser Himalayan rocks in the proximal footwall of the Main Central Thrust, suggest that since Early Miocene time, it may be more appropriate to model the evolution of the fold-thrust belt using the criticaltaper paradigm. This does not exclude the possibility that channel flow and linked extrasion of Greater Himalayan rocks may have occurred, but it places important boundaries on a permissible time frame during which these processes may have operated.

Abstract Crystalline klippen over the Lesser Himalayan Metasedimentary Sequence (LHMS) zone in the NW Himalaya have specific syn- and post-emplacement histories. These tectonics also provide a means to understand the driving factors responsible for the exhumation of the rocks of crystalline klippen during the Himalayan Orogeny. New meso- and microscale structural analyses, and thermochronological studies across the LHMS zone, Ramgarh Thrust (RT) sheet and Almora klippe in the eastern Kumaun region, NW Himalaya, indicate that the RT sheet and Almora klippe were a part of the Higher Himalayan Crystalline (HHC) of the Indian Plate which underwent at least one episode of pre-Himalayan deformation and polyepisodic Himalayan deformation in ductile and brittle–ductile regimes. The deformation temperature pattern within the Almora klippe records a normal thermal profile from its base to top but an inverted thermal profile from the base of Almora klippe down towards the LHMS zone. New fission-track data collected across the RT sheet and Almora klippe along Chalthi–Champawat–Pithoragarh traverse in the east Kumaun region document the exhumation of both units since Eocene times. Zircon fission-track (ZFT) ages from the Almora klippe range between 28.7 ± 2.4 and 17.6 ± 1.1 Ma, and from the RT sheet between 29.8 ± 1.6 and 22.6 ± 1.9 Ma; and the apatite fission-track (AFT) ages from the Almora klippe range between 15.1 ± 1.7 and 3.4 ± 0.5 Ma, and from the RT sheet between 8.7 ± 1.2 and 4.6 ± 0.6 Ma. The age pattern and diverse patterns of the exhumation rates reflect a clear tectonic signal in the RT sheet and the Almora klippe which acknowledge that the Cenozoic tectonics influenced the exhumation pattern in the Himalaya.

ABSTRACT New geological mapping in midwestern Nepal, complemented by thermochronological and geochronological data sets, provides stratigraphic, structural, and kinematic information for this portion of the Himalayan thrust belt. Lithofacies and geochronologic data substantiate five genetic (tectono)stratigraphic packages: the Lesser Himalayan (ca. 1900–1600 Ma), Greater Himalayan (ca. 800–520 Ma), Tethyan Himalayan (Late Ordovician–Cretaceous), Gondwana (Permian–Paleocene), and Cenozoic Foreland Basin (Eocene–Pleistocene) Sequences. Major structures of midwestern Nepal are similar to those documented along strike in the Himalaya and include a frontal imbricate zone, the Main Boundary and Ramgarh thrusts, the synformal Dadeldhura and Jajarkot klippen of Greater Himalayan rocks, and the hybrid antiformal-stack/hinterland-dipping Lesser Himalayan duplex. Total (probably minimum) shortening between the Main Frontal thrust and the South Tibetan detachment is 400–580 km, increasing westward from the Kaligandaki River region. The Main Central and Ramgarh thrusts were active sequentially during the early to middle Miocene; the Lesser Himalayan duplex developed between ca. 11 Ma and 5 Ma; the Main Boundary thrust became active after ca. 5 Ma and remains active in places; and thrusts that cut the Siwalik Group foreland basin deposits in the frontal imbricate belt have been active since ca. 4–2 Ma. The Main Central “thrust” is a broad shear zone that includes the boundary between Lesser and Greater Himalayan Sequences as defined by their protolith characteristics (especially their ages and lithofacies). The shape of the major footwall frontal ramp beneath the Lesser Himalayan duplex is geometrically complex and has evolved progressively over the past ~10 m.y. This study provides the basis for understanding the Himalayan thrust belt and recent seismic activity in terms of critical taper models of orogenic wedges, and it will help to focus future efforts on better documenting crustal shortening in the northern half of the thrust belt.