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![Digital Elevation Model covering the west of the Makgadikgadi Basin, produced from SRTM data (from Moore et al., 2012).]()
![Elevation profile across the western Makgadikgadi Basin. This highlights the Deception and Gidikwe Ridges and the breaks in slope associated with the 995 m, 945 m and 922 m shorelines (From Moore et al., 2012).]()
![(A) Overview of the Makgadikgadi Basin illustrating major landforms and faults, interpreted from the SRTM-4 digital elevation model. Grey-shading depicting the approximate extent of the principal lake stands, discussed in main text. Ma= Mababe Depression; Mk = Makgadikgadi Pans complex; Ng = Lake Ngami; Ok = Okavango Fan. Line marked Fig. 8 denotes the approximate location of the sediment profile shown in Figure 8. (B) Detail of the Makgadikgadi Pans Complex, showing the location of major sand ridges and the distribution of documented Stone Age localities. The Ntwetwe and Sowa Pans together comprise the Makgadikgadi Pans. Grey tones as for Figure 3A. Archaeological data collated from Bond and Summers (1954); Clark (1950); Cooke (1979; Ebert et al (1976); Helgren (1984); McFarlane and Segadika (2001); Robbins (1988) and Robbins and Murphy (1998).]()
![(A) Digital Elevation Model covering the west of the Makgadikgadi Basin, produced from SRTM-4 data. Note that the transverse dune field covers the Deception Ridge, and extends to the east of this feature, suggesting that these dunes were actively forming during the tenure of the 945 m shoreline. (B) Elevation profile across the Gidikwe and Deception Ridges.]()
![(A) Digital Elevation Model covering the west of the Makgadikgadi Basin, produced from SRTM-4 data. Note that the transverse dune field covers the Deception Ridge, and extends to the east of this feature, suggesting that these dunes were actively forming during the tenure of the 945 m shoreline. (B) Elevation profile across the Gidikwe and Deception Ridges.]()
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![Schwarz (1920) proposed that the Etosha and Makgadikgadi Basins be flooded by the construction of weirs to divert the Cunene (sic) and Okavango/Chobe (sic) Rivers into the respective basins. He postulated that evaporation from the resulting lakes would enhance rainfall over the entire Kalahari region, making extensive irrigation possible, as illustrated in his map of the scheme.]()
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![Hydrological model of Makgadikgadi Palaeo-Lakes summarizes relationships between different regional drainage inflows and contrasting extremes of annual rainfall for principal lake stands. See Table 3 and Supplementary File 1 for additional details. (A) Relationship between estimated annual evaporation and precipitation (mm) in relation to minimum estimated lake volumes (920, 936, 945, 995 m shorelines) in the absence of any additional drainage run off into the Makgadikgadi Basin.(B) Hydrological budgets (Table 3) of the respective lakes (920, 936, 945, 995 m shorelines) in the Makgadikgadi Basin (Figure 3) under the contemporary modern climate for estimated differences in three different drainage nets (total annual inflow, km3/yr). The latter represent single, double and threefold inputs of entire annual average inflow of the Upper Zambezi River. The simulation reveals the positive feedback on local climate between prevailing rainfall and the rainfall/evaporation thresholds over estimated lake volumes in northern Botswana (analogous to modern rainfall induced over 68 800 km2 Lake Victoria). Positive feedback on hydrological input was highest over the 945 m and 995 m lake stands, and would have maintained overtopping into the Zambezi’s channel at the fault-controlled Mambova Barrage (Figures 1 and 7).]()
![Topographic map (SRTM-3 [Shuttle Radar Topography Mission] data) of northern Botswana (a.s.l.—above sea level). O-O′ is approximate location of cross section in Figure 5D. White arrows show faults: G—Gumare; K—Kunyere; P—Panhandle; T—Thamalakane. White solid lines indicate pans. Black polygon is Okavango Delta helicopter time-domain electromagnetic survey area. Blue dots indicate basement depths defined by boreholes; red dots and stars indicate basement depths defined by seismic surveys. White numbers in parentheses are depths to base of electrically conductive layer. White dashed lines indicate clusters of boreholes that do not reach basement. Rivers: BR—Boteti; CR—Cuando; LZR—Lower Zambezi; OR—Okavango; UZR—Upper Zambezi. Gi—Gidikwe Ridge; LN—Lake Nagami; MD—Mababe Depression; MP—Makgadikgadi Pans; TI—Thata Island; VF—Victoria Falls. Kafue River is north of the map. Makgadikgadi Basin encompasses the Makgadikgadi Pans and surrounding low-elevation regions. Except for a borehole on Thata Island, sediment lithologies beneath survey area are unknown.]()
![Summary of published quartz luminescence ages (mean with 1σ analytical error) for the high elevation shorelines of the Makgadikgadi Basin, and the degraded linear dunes in Botswana and surrounding countries. Sources of data: 1.Burrough et al. (2009a); 2.Burrough and Thomas (2008); 3.Burrough et al. (2007); 4.Ringrose et al. (2005); 5.Thomas et al. (2003); 6.Stokes et al. (1998); 7.O’Connor and Thomas (1999); 8.Thomas et al. (2000); 9. and 10.Stokes et al. (1997). Vertical grey bars denote palaeo-megalake stages inferred by Burrough et al. (2009a). EDC dust flux peaks from Petit et al. (1999).]()
![Summary of principal episodes in drainage evolution across the Kalahari Plateau. The geomorphological evidence and interpretations of focal landforms (numbered and summarized in Tables 1 and 2) are discussed in the main text. (A) Late Miocene. Late Palaeogene uplift along the OKZ Axis severs the link between the Palaeo-Chambeshi/Upper Zambezi drainage system and the Limpopo River to initiate fluvio-lacustrine deposition within the resultant Kalahari Basin, with sedimentation showing a progressive onlap to the north. (B) Late Pliocene. Mid-Zambezi captures Palaeo-Chambeshi/Proto-Kafue/Upper Zambezi, cutting off the major source of sediment supply to the Kalahari Basin, leaving the Cuito-Cubango Rivers as relics of the earlier endoreic drainage system. The redirected Palaeo-Chambeshi River initiates incision of the Eastern Batoka Gorge (13). (C) Early Pleistocene. Uplift across the course of the Upper Zambezi along the Chobe Fault associated with the south-westerly propagation of the EARS diverts the Palaeo-Chambeshi/Upper Zambezi drainage system into northern Botswana to initiate Palaeo-Lake Deception with a shore line elevation of 990 to 1000 m. The former links between the Upper Chambeshi and the Proto-Kafue (11), and the latter drainage system and PLD were all extant at this time, significantly before formation of the Kafue-Machili watershed (18). (D) Early to Mid-Pleistocene drainage disruptions (dashed lines) followed the chronological sequence (Tables 1 and 2) in reshaping a wetland archipelago: Link between the Upper Chambeshi and Kafue severed by uplift of Congo-Zambezi watershed (11). Palaeo-Lake Deception (PLD) (995 m shoreline) contracts to 945 m shoreline (Palaeo-Lake Makgadikgadi (PLM). Severance of the link between the Kafue and Upper Zambezi (18) initiated Palaeo-Lake Patrick in the Kafue graben (9), with contraction of the Makgadikgadi Basin lake to the 936 m PLT. Palaeo-Lake Bulozi (10) impounded in the vicinity of N′gonye Falls; 936 m PLT contracts to 920 m shoreline. Link between Upper Cuando and Zambezi severed to isolate Matabele-Mulonga Plain (22). Upper and Mid-Zambezi reconnected (20). 920 m lake shrinks to 912 m shoreline. Palaeo-Lake Patrick (9) drained by a tributary of the Mid-Zambezi to establish the modern course of the Lower Kafue River (23).]()
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Digital Elevation Model covering the west of the Makgadikgadi Basin, produc... Available to Purchase
in ANATOMY OF A DISTAL KIMBERLITE INDICATOR MINERAL (KIM) ANOMALY IN THE CENTRAL KALAHARI, BOTSWANA
> South African Journal of Geology
Published: 01 June 2013
Figure 2(a) Digital Elevation Model covering the west of the Makgadikgadi Basin, produced from SRTM data (from Moore et al., 2012 ).
Image
Elevation profile across the western Makgadikgadi Basin. This highlights th... Available to Purchase
in ANATOMY OF A DISTAL KIMBERLITE INDICATOR MINERAL (KIM) ANOMALY IN THE CENTRAL KALAHARI, BOTSWANA
> South African Journal of Geology
Published: 01 June 2013
Figure 2(b) Elevation profile across the western Makgadikgadi Basin. This highlights the Deception and Gidikwe Ridges and the breaks in slope associated with the 995 m, 945 m and 922 m shorelines (From Moore et al., 2012 ).
Image
( A ) Overview of the Makgadikgadi Basin illustrating major landforms and f... Available to Purchase
in THE EVOLUTION AND AGES OF MAKGADIKGADI PALAEO-LAKES: CONSILIENT EVIDENCE FROM KALAHARI DRAINAGE EVOLUTION SOUTH-CENTRAL AFRICA
> South African Journal of Geology
Published: 01 September 2012
Figure 3 ( A ) Overview of the Makgadikgadi Basin illustrating major landforms and faults, interpreted from the SRTM-4 digital elevation model. Grey-shading depicting the approximate extent of the principal lake stands, discussed in main text. Ma= Mababe Depression; Mk = Makgadikgadi Pans complex
Image
( A ) Digital Elevation Model covering the west of the Makgadikgadi Basin, ... Available to Purchase
in THE EVOLUTION AND AGES OF MAKGADIKGADI PALAEO-LAKES: CONSILIENT EVIDENCE FROM KALAHARI DRAINAGE EVOLUTION SOUTH-CENTRAL AFRICA
> South African Journal of Geology
Published: 01 September 2012
Figure 4 ( A ) Digital Elevation Model covering the west of the Makgadikgadi Basin, produced from SRTM-4 data. Note that the transverse dune field covers the Deception Ridge, and extends to the east of this feature, suggesting that these dunes were actively forming during the tenure of the 945 m
Image
( A ) Digital Elevation Model covering the west of the Makgadikgadi Basin, ... Available to Purchase
in THE EVOLUTION AND AGES OF MAKGADIKGADI PALAEO-LAKES: CONSILIENT EVIDENCE FROM KALAHARI DRAINAGE EVOLUTION SOUTH-CENTRAL AFRICA
> South African Journal of Geology
Published: 01 September 2012
Figure 4 ( A ) Digital Elevation Model covering the west of the Makgadikgadi Basin, produced from SRTM-4 data. Note that the transverse dune field covers the Deception Ridge, and extends to the east of this feature, suggesting that these dunes were actively forming during the tenure of the 945 m
Journal Article
Paleo-megalake and paleo-megafan in southern Africa Available to Purchase
Journal: Geology
Publisher: Geological Society of America
Published: 01 November 2013
Geology (2013) 41 (11): 1155–1158.
...Joel E. Podgorski; Alan G. Green; Lesego Kgotlhang; Wolfgang K.H. Kinzelbach; Thomas Kalscheuer; Esben Auken; Tiyapo Ngwisanyi Abstract The near juxtaposition of the Makgadikgadi Basin (Botswana), the world’s largest saltpan complex, with the Okavango Delta, one of the planet’s largest inland...
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Journal Article
THE EVOLUTION AND AGES OF MAKGADIKGADI PALAEO-LAKES: CONSILIENT EVIDENCE FROM KALAHARI DRAINAGE EVOLUTION SOUTH-CENTRAL AFRICA Available to Purchase
Journal: South African Journal of Geology
Publisher: Geological Society of South Africa
Published: 01 September 2012
South African Journal of Geology (2012) 115 (3): 385–413.
...Figure 3 ( A ) Overview of the Makgadikgadi Basin illustrating major landforms and faults, interpreted from the SRTM-4 digital elevation model. Grey-shading depicting the approximate extent of the principal lake stands, discussed in main text. Ma= Mababe Depression; Mk = Makgadikgadi Pans complex...
FIGURES
Journal Article
ANATOMY OF A DISTAL KIMBERLITE INDICATOR MINERAL (KIM) ANOMALY IN THE CENTRAL KALAHARI, BOTSWANA Available to Purchase
Journal: South African Journal of Geology
Publisher: Geological Society of South Africa
Published: 01 June 2013
South African Journal of Geology (2013) 116 (1): 67–78.
...Figure 2(a) Digital Elevation Model covering the west of the Makgadikgadi Basin, produced from SRTM data (from Moore et al., 2012 ). ...
FIGURES
Image
Schwarz (1920) proposed that the Etosha and Makgadikgadi Basins be flooded... Available to Purchase
in THE OKAVANGO DELTA AND ITS PLACE IN THE GEOMORPHOLOGICAL EVOLUTION OF SOUTHERN AFRICA
> South African Journal of Geology
Published: 01 June 2013
Figure 1 Schwarz (1920) proposed that the Etosha and Makgadikgadi Basins be flooded by the construction of weirs to divert the Cunene (sic) and Okavango/Chobe (sic) Rivers into the respective basins. He postulated that evaporation from the resulting lakes would enhance rainfall over the entire
Journal Article
Factors leading to sub-surface pan silcrete formation in north-central Botswana Available to Purchase
Journal: South African Journal of Geology
Publisher: Geological Society of South Africa
Published: 01 March 2023
South African Journal of Geology (2023) 126 (1): 93–112.
...S. Ringrose; L. Cassidy; S. Diskin; S.H. Coetzee Abstract New evidence was sought for sub-pan silcrete formation along the southern margin of Ntwetwe Pan in the Botswana Makgadikgadi basin. This was achieved by integrating drillhole and surface sample descriptions with element and isocon analysis...
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Hydrological model of Makgadikgadi Palaeo-Lakes summarizes relationships be... Available to Purchase
in THE EVOLUTION AND AGES OF MAKGADIKGADI PALAEO-LAKES: CONSILIENT EVIDENCE FROM KALAHARI DRAINAGE EVOLUTION SOUTH-CENTRAL AFRICA
> South African Journal of Geology
Published: 01 September 2012
annual evaporation and precipitation (mm) in relation to minimum estimated lake volumes (920, 936, 945, 995 m shorelines) in the absence of any additional drainage run off into the Makgadikgadi Basin.( B ) Hydrological budgets ( Table 3 ) of the respective lakes (920, 936, 945, 995 m shorelines
Image
![Topographic map (SRTM-3 [Shuttle Radar Topography Mission] data) of northern Botswana (a.s.l.—above sea level). O-O′ is approximate location of cross section in Figure 5D. White arrows show faults: G—Gumare; K—Kunyere; P—Panhandle; T—Thamalakane. White solid lines indicate pans. Black polygon is Okavango Delta helicopter time-domain electromagnetic survey area. Blue dots indicate basement depths defined by boreholes; red dots and stars indicate basement depths defined by seismic surveys. White numbers in parentheses are depths to base of electrically conductive layer. White dashed lines indicate clusters of boreholes that do not reach basement. Rivers: BR—Boteti; CR—Cuando; LZR—Lower Zambezi; OR—Okavango; UZR—Upper Zambezi. Gi—Gidikwe Ridge; LN—Lake Nagami; MD—Mababe Depression; MP—Makgadikgadi Pans; TI—Thata Island; VF—Victoria Falls. Kafue River is north of the map. Makgadikgadi Basin encompasses the Makgadikgadi Pans and surrounding low-elevation regions. Except for a borehole on Thata Island, sediment lithologies beneath survey area are unknown.](https://gsw.silverchair-cdn.com/gsw/Content_public/Journal/geology/41/11/10.1130_G34735.1/3/s_1155fig1.jpeg?Expires=2147483647&Signature=ctN52rjNv4bnB1eFtoz9nZnarAfp~fv6bZ1xJGwJYETQ6YbjdgZDc3oLAjtn65EmST74SBd8y3E-ns2zjJ~8VugWxC1vEoBbr5IF15vs47vm9Audi1SMgbJxUIeld71ddIYEY4zF9GnGOloVNJoY1jMRQljOa4WkTEK0AU8bB3atTTOwC38Fxm1KsKSo0vCv322KmtQMoqTyhYR8Q~aJlPuTPyeKRjjIsK1xQctsMnG6rtqqotfsRLoELsoUkt45b2q~5NiSFWxHHfdGHbRv~xTAl6w6p9lMU58JV1xfWvO7QHSKuOZeQMZsINrz80Dg0~kVjCe2OZQMLzmIX19uMA__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAIE5G5CRDK6RD3PGA)
Topographic map (SRTM-3 [Shuttle Radar Topography Mission] data) of norther... Available to Purchase
Published: 01 November 2013
. Makgadikgadi Basin encompasses the Makgadikgadi Pans and surrounding low-elevation regions. Except for a borehole on Thata Island, sediment lithologies beneath survey area are unknown.
Image
Summary of published quartz luminescence ages (mean with 1σ analytical erro... Available to Purchase
in THE EVOLUTION AND AGES OF MAKGADIKGADI PALAEO-LAKES: CONSILIENT EVIDENCE FROM KALAHARI DRAINAGE EVOLUTION SOUTH-CENTRAL AFRICA
> South African Journal of Geology
Published: 01 September 2012
Figure 5 Summary of published quartz luminescence ages (mean with 1σ analytical error) for the high elevation shorelines of the Makgadikgadi Basin, and the degraded linear dunes in Botswana and surrounding countries. Sources of data: 1. Burrough et al. (2009a) ; 2. Burrough and Thomas (2008
Image
Summary of principal episodes in drainage evolution across the Kalahari Pla... Available to Purchase
in THE EVOLUTION AND AGES OF MAKGADIKGADI PALAEO-LAKES: CONSILIENT EVIDENCE FROM KALAHARI DRAINAGE EVOLUTION SOUTH-CENTRAL AFRICA
> South African Journal of Geology
Published: 01 September 2012
(18) initiated Palaeo-Lake Patrick in the Kafue graben (9), with contraction of the Makgadikgadi Basin lake to the 936 m PLT. Palaeo-Lake Bulozi (10) impounded in the vicinity of N′gonye Falls; 936 m PLT contracts to 920 m shoreline. Link between Upper Cuando and Zambezi severed to isolate Matabele
Journal Article
Size distribution of Baobabs on Kubu “Island”, Sowa Pan (northern Botswana): an indicator of late-stage evolution of the Makgadikgadi palaeo-lake and climate change? Available to Purchase
Journal: South African Journal of Geology
Publisher: Geological Society of South Africa
Published: 01 September 2016
South African Journal of Geology (2016) 119 (3): 535–544.
... quarter to half of the tree's life, followed by subsequent very slow growth rates. A corollary of the model proposed by Riedel et al. (2012) is that the Sowa and Ntwetwe Pans formed a continuous body of water during the late Holocene, and that final desiccation of the Makgadikgadi basin only occurred...
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Journal Article
THE OKAVANGO DELTA AND ITS PLACE IN THE GEOMORPHOLOGICAL EVOLUTION OF SOUTHERN AFRICA Available to Purchase
Journal: South African Journal of Geology
Publisher: Geological Society of South Africa
Published: 01 June 2013
South African Journal of Geology (2013) 116 (1): 1–54.
...Figure 1 Schwarz (1920) proposed that the Etosha and Makgadikgadi Basins be flooded by the construction of weirs to divert the Cunene (sic) and Okavango/Chobe (sic) Rivers into the respective basins. He postulated that evaporation from the resulting lakes would enhance rainfall over the entire...
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Journal Article
The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications Available to Purchase
Journal: South African Journal of Geology
Publisher: Geological Society of South Africa
Published: 01 September 2001
South African Journal of Geology (2001) 104 (3): 243–264.
...: the Etosha Basin and the Okavango-Makgadikgadi Basin. These are partly responsible for on-going sedimentation in the Kalahari Basin. Figure 8. Map showing the major drainages of southern Africa. The evolution of the major drainages of central southern Africa has been partly established...
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Journal Article
Makgadikgadi Pans Complex of Central Botswana Available to Purchase
Journal: GSA Bulletin
Publisher: Geological Society of America
Published: 01 February 1979
GSA Bulletin (1979) 90 (2_Part_II): 289–312.
...Thomas A. Baillieul Abstract The Makgadikgadi Pans Complex forms a large and unusual surface feature in the central part of the Republic of Botswana (Figs. 1, 2). The two major pans of the complex, Sua and Ntwetwe, comprise an area in excess of 8,400 km 2 (Fig. 3). The pans occupy a basin...
Journal Article
Dryland dunes and other dryland environmental archives as proxies for Late Quaternary stratigraphy and environmental and climate change in southern Africa Available to Purchase
Journal: South African Journal of Geology
Publisher: Geological Society of South Africa
Published: 01 December 2021
South African Journal of Geology (2021) 124 (4): 927–962.
... by geographical location from west to east. A candidate for a regional chronostratigraphy for the northern Kalahari comes from OSL-ages for shoreline accumulation from three interconnected lacustrine basins (Ngami, Mababe and Makgadikgadi), which when combined formed mega-lake Makgadikgadi ( Burrough et al., 2009...
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Journal Article
Palaeodune morphology associated with the Gumare fault of the Okavango graben in the Botswana/Namibia borderland: a new model of tectonic influence Available to Purchase
Journal: South African Journal of Geology
Publisher: Geological Society of South Africa
Published: 01 December 2007
South African Journal of Geology (2007) 110 (4): 535–542.
..., then the entire period between the Cretaceous and the uplift of the Kalahari-Zimbabwe axis, which resulted in the endorheic flooding of the Makgadikgadi basin, should be considered. The inferred age of this uplift is poorly constrained ( Du Toit, 1933 ; Moore, 1999 ). Tectonic activity plays an important...
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