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Ingolf Expedition
THE FIRST DANISH DEEP-SEA EXPEDITION ON THE INGOLF: 1895 AND 1896
Cover, Table of Contents, Editor’s Introduction
Carl Frederik Wandel, naval officer and leader and captain of the Ingolf. H...
THE CENTRAL LABORATORY OF THE INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL FOR THE EXPLORATION OF THE SEA (ICES) AND ITS SUCCESSORS
THE ASTARTE (BIVALVIA: ASTARTIDAE) THAT DOCUMENT THE EARLIEST OPENING OF BERING STRAIT
Macrofauna and palaeoenvironment of marine strata of Windermere Interstadial age of the east coast of Scotland
First record and phylogenetic significance of a Jurassic diadematacean sea urchin from California
FRIDTJOF NANSEN AND THE GEOLOGY OF THE ARCTIC
A Windermere Interstadial marine sequence: environmental and relative sea level interpretations for the western Forth valley, Scotland
UPPER CRETACEOUS–PALEOCENE ECHINOIDS FROM NORTHERN PATAGONIA, ARGENTINA
Biogeography of Iberian Atlantic Neogene Marginelliform Gastropods (Marginellidae, Cystiscidae): Global Change and Transatlantic Colonization
Paleoecology of sublittoral Miocene echinoids from Sardinia: A case study for substrate controls of faunal distributions
ESSAY REVIEW: A RANKEAN VIEW OF HISTORICAL GEOLOGY AND ITS DEVELOPMENT—WITH AUTHOR’S RESPONSE
The 1300-km-long, up to 300-km-wide onshore segment of the East Greenland Caledonian orogen is divided into distinct structurally bound geological domains that originally evolved as major westward-displaced thrust units during collision with Baltica. The thrust systems accommodated contraction of an already complex Laurentian assembly of Archean to Neoproterozoic and Cambrian to Silurian lithostratigraphic units and are a consequence of the convergence, and final collision, of Baltica with Laurentia in the mid- to late Silurian Scandian orogeny. The transition from undisturbed foreland to orogen is perfectly preserved in the extreme north of the East Greenland Caledonides, where a younger lower (Vandredalen) thrust sheet carrying older thrust sheets (Western thrust belt) is displaced westward across a thin-skinned fold-and-thrust belt. In the southern half of the orogen, a pile of far-traveled thrust sheets (from youngest to oldest, Gemmedal, Niggli Spids, Hagar Bjerg thrust sheets) is displaced WNW across parautochthonous foreland windows, and the intact foreland is only intermittently exposed at the margin of the Inland Ice in the far west. These westward- and foreland-propagating systems are distinct from the Nørreland thrust sheet, the coastal region between 76°N and 79°N, in which Paleoproterozoic basement gneiss lithologies host enclaves of Devonian and Carboniferous eclogite-facies rocks. These rocks must have been exhumed from the roots of the collisional orogen, and their age suggests that the Nørreland thrust may be out of sequence relative to the main WNW foreland-propagating systems.
Section 2. Our Personal and Scientific Histories
The East Greenland Caledonides, which make up an ∼1300-km-long stretch of North-East Greenland, were formed by the collision of Laurentia and Baltica in mid-Silurian time. Geological mapping and research in this remote and poorly accessible segment of the circum-Atlantic Caledonide orogen began in connection with geographical exploration voyages in the early part of the nineteenth century. The first regional geological mapping took place during the long series of “The Danish Expeditions to North-East Greenland” between 1926 and 1958. Modern geological research and regional mapping by the Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland between 1968 and 1998 have resulted in the publication of a series of 1:500,000 geological maps of the orogen, and an overview geological map at 1:1,000,000 scale, which accompanies this volume. This article reviews the history of geological research and the evolution of interpretations of the orogen. The recent systematic studies by the Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland supplement and build on the considerable existing published literature and demonstrate that the North-East Greenland segment of the Caledonide orogen consists of a westward-propagating thrust sheet pile, with displacements estimated at 300–500 km. The thrust sheets incorporate major segments of reworked Laurentian gneiss basement, and a thick succession of Neoproterozoic to Ordovician sediments that accumulated in a major basin originally located outboard of the present coastline.
Abstract: Most families of the endobenthic spatangoid echinoids possess a subanal fasciole surrounding drain-constructing podia and correspondingly construct a single drain tube or a pair of them. The drains conduct used respiration water away from the echinoid. In vitro studies of spatangoid echinoids in the laboratory in aquaria have led to the description of some spurious behavior patterns. These probably derive from the use of inadequately spacious aquaria and of insufficient duration of experiments, and have led to abnormal behavior of the echinoids. Some of these “mythical” behavior patterns have been repeated in the literature, especially in textbooks. Trace fossils of burrowing echinoids are abundantly and well preserved as Scolicia (twin drains) and Bichordites (single drain), and these trace fossils provide evidence that the spurious modes of behavior observed in laboratory conditions are artefacts and do not exist in nature. Some members of the family Schizasteridae burrow deeply down to ca. 20 cm in fine-grained sediment. However, the schizasterids possess no subanal fasciole, and little evidence of drain construction has been reported for the family. Nevertheless, large podia are present, which suggests the ability for construction and maintenance of two drains. In the Pleistocene Lindos Bay Clay of the Rhodos Formation of Rhodes, Greece, abundant individuals of Schizaster canaliferus are preserved in silty clay. The sediment is totally bioturbated, containing abundant Scolicia isp. The echinoids occur in intimate association within these trace fossils and are undoubtedly genetically connected with them. The Scolicia have two basal drain strings, clearly indicating that S. canaliferus constructs a pair of drains. Preservation of the hair-thin drains in Scolicia is considered to involve precipitation of early cement, as in Bichordites. In this way, the slender empty tubes escape obliteration by compaction.
The East Greenland Caledonian orogen can be divided into distinct structurally bound geological domains composed of Archean to Lower Paleozoic lithostrati graphic and lithodemic components derived from the eastern margin of Laurentia. These domains originally evolved as major westward-displaced thrust units in the overriding plate during the collision with Baltica. The western border of the 1300-km-long and up to 300-km-wide segment of the orogen preserved onshore in East Greenland is thrust against the rocks of the Laurentian craton and is largely concealed beneath the Inland Ice. A foreland-propagating thrust pile is well-preserved in the extreme north of the orogen (79°N–82°N), and in the southern half (70°N–76°N), with less-well-preserved remnants in the western nunataks of the intervening region. Between 76°N and 81°N, the outer coastal region is dominated by high-grade Paleoproterozoic orthogneisses that were reworked during the Caledonian orogeny; most of this region is characterized by the presence of eclogitic mafic enclaves, which testify to exhumation from depths in excess of 50 km in late Caledonian time. Caledonian granites are confined to the southern orogen (70°N–76°N), where they intrude rock units now contained within the upper thrust sheet. Devonian continental basins are conspicuous in the southern part of the orogen and occur offshore farther north; their deposition can be linked to syn- to late-orogenic extension. Carboniferous and younger rocks are exposed onshore in the extreme north of the orogen (80°N–81°N) and are widespread in the south between 71°N and 75°N.
The crystalline basement within the northern parts of the Caledonian orogen, and in the adjacent foreland, is overlain by a several-kilometer-thick succession of sedimentary and volcanic rocks, the Paleoproterozoic–Mesoproterozoic Independence Fjord Group and the Mesoproterozoic Zig-Zag Dal Basalt Formation. The lowermost strata of the Independence Fjord Group, composed of quartzitic and feldspathic sandstones and conglomerates with interbedded volcanic rocks, occur within the Caledonian orogen and are strongly deformed. These strata were deposited around 1740 Ma ago, and they were associated with a period of rifting that succeeded a long sequence of Paleoproterozoic orogenic events. Similar sandstones, interbedded with siltstone units but without volcanic rocks, are widespread in the Caledonian foreland, where they are virtually undeformed. These foreland deposits were laid down in a continental sag basin under semiarid conditions. Sedimentary structures indicate a largely fluvial origin, with intermittent eolian transport. The siltstones were deposited in extensive shallow lakes. Desiccated bedding surfaces show that these periodically dried out. The sandstones of the Independence Fjord Group are cut by a multitude of doleritic sheets and dikes, the ca. 1380 Ma Midsommersø Dolerites, and more silicic intrusions, most of which show evidence of hydrothermal alteration and variable contamination with components derived from the crystalline basement and the sandstones. Some intrusions consist almost entirely of crustally derived material. The Zig-Zag Dal Basalt Formation conformably overlies the Independence Fjord Group. Compositional similarities suggest a genetic relationship with the Midsommersø Dolerites, but the basalts appear to be less crustally contaminated. The basalts were deposited within a basin that underwent subsidence during and after volcanic activity. The Zig-Zag Dal Basalt Formation is unconformably overlain by Neoproterozoic sedimentary successions. The unconformity represents a stratigraphic hiatus of some 500 m.y., for which no information is available from North Greenland.
Neoproterozoic sedimentary basins with glacigenic deposits of the East Greenland Caledonides
Two major Neoproterozoic sedimentary basins that probably formed in response to an early pulse of Iapetan rifting along the Laurentian margin are well exposed in the East Greenland Caledonides. The Hekla Sund Basin is exposed at the northern termination of the East Greenland Caledonides, and it is represented by the Rivieradal and Hagen Fjord Groups, which attain a cumulative thickness of 8–11 km. The evolution of this basin reflects deposition during active rifting and a postrift thermal equilibration stage. The Eleonore Bay Basin of East Greenland includes the deposits of the Eleonore Bay Supergroup of early Neoproterozoic age overlain by Cryogenian (mid-Neoproterozoic) glacial deposits of the Tillite Group, which have a combined thickness in excess of 14 km. Four stages of basin evolution may be distinguished based on paleogeographic reorganizations of the shelf and a change from siliciclastic to carbonate deposition, and the final stage was dominated by glacigenic deposition. Major regional stratigraphic breaks seem to be absent, as is other evidence of rift-related sedimentation, suggesting deposition in one or a series of connected ensialic basins. A comparison with other Neoproterozoic basins along the Laurentian margin of the Iapetus Ocean shows similarities between the Eleonore Bay Basin and coeval deposits on Svalbard and the Central Highlands of Scotland. The development of an extensive carbonate platform during the later stages of both the Eleonore Bay and Hekla Sund Basins testifies to a period of tectonic stability prior to onset of Iapetus rifting. The extent of this carbonate platform may have been even larger, since similar successions are present in the Caledonides of Scotland and Ireland.