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Hormuz Iran
Geology, geochemistry, mineralization and fluid inclusion characteristics of the SW of Hormuz Island banded iron formations, southern Iran
( a ) Index map showing the structural zones in Iran, and the location of H...
This paper briefly reviews the most important salt deposits of the Middle East. Their stratigraphic and geographic distribution is discussed in relationship to the general geologic history of the area. Recent field studies in Iran have presented new evidence for an Early Cambrian or Proterozoic age of the Hormuz salt. Stable platform conditions on the northeastern shelf of the Arabian Shield and in East Iran favored the development of semiclosed basins with evaporite deposits in Proterozoic (?) time and at repeated intervals in Paleozoic and Mesozoic time, culminating in the Late Jurassic. Their geographic outline is largely governed by old, Precambrian basement trends such as the Oman line and the Qatar line. These trends are essentially north-south and can partly be attributed to a late Precambrian, pre-Hormuz orogeny. The paleogeographic configuration was drastically changed by Alpine diastrophism which developed the Tertiary lagoon of the Persian Gulf and Mesopotamia and separated off the continental basin of Central Iran with its spectacular salt domes and modern Kawir salt wastes. Present salt deposition is displayed on a grand scale in the Great Kawir of Central Iran.
Tectono-sedimentary evolution of the Permian–Triassic extension event in the Zagros basin (Iran): results from analogue modelling
—Simplified map of southwestern Iran showing major structures (modified aft...
A review of the Ediacaran to Early Cambrian (‘Infra-Cambrian’) evaporites and associated sediments of the Middle East
Abstract The paper reviews the age, location and extent of the late Neoproterozoic to Early Cambrian evaporite basins in the Middle East, NW India and Pakistan. The stratigraphic section discussed includes the largest inorganic negative δ 13 C excursion known (in the Shuram Formation); six cycles of alternating evaporites and carbonate (Ara Formation) and a unique formation in the middle of the Ara known as the Al Shomou silicilyte, which is a major hydrocarbon source. Tuff/volcanic horizons within the Ara are very well dated, with a precision of <0.15 myr. Extensional faulting was contemporaneous with the deposition of the evaporites, creating basins that at times showed density stratification and anoxia. The Buah Formation, which underlies the Ara, provides an insight into the development of Ediacaran carbonate ramp systems in the absence of bioturbation. A reconstruction of Gondwana brings the Ara and the Hormuz evaporites close to the evaporites of NW India and Pakistan, but leaves a small gap between them, which was probably occupied by a continental sliver, mostly likely part of the Lut block of central Iran. The Ara-Hormuz basins lie on the edge of a major continental collision between India and east Africa that was part of the amalgamation of east Gondwana.
Abstract Four-dimensional analogue X-ray tomography imagery is used to investigate the role played by pre-existing salt structures during compressive deformation. Initially linear salt structures evolve towards more axisymmetric diapirs. Depending on the diapir geometry and on its thickness relative to the sedimentary column thickness, the diapirs are either (1) shortened and localize sharp overturned folds for vertical pipe-like diapirs or else (2) act as preferentially oriented ramps, the diapir being incorporated in the fold for pillow-like diapirs. The ridges have a strong effect on the lateral extent and orientation of folds: they disconnect the folds formed on either side of the salt wall. Compressional relays between ridges allow for a folded connection between both sides. The Zagros Mountains in southern Iran offer a large variety of comparable structures, associated with the Hormuz salt level which acts as the regional décollement. Most of the salt structures have been active from the Early Palaeozoic until the present day. The first-order critical taper is controlled by the distribution of Hormuz décollement level and by its thickness. At a smaller scale, the fold geometry and size are locally controlled by the pre-existing salt structures, which are the main source of heterogeneity in the deformation.
3D structural modelling of the southern Zagros fold-and-thrust belt diapiric province
Tectonics of the Musandam Peninsula and northern Oman Mountains: From ophiolite obduction to continental collision
Salt Diapirism in Southern Iran
Geodynamic evolution of Upper Cretaceous Zagros ophiolites: formation of oceanic lithosphere above a nascent subduction zone
Tectonic and stratigraphic evolution of Zagros and Makran during the Mesozoic–Cenozoic: introduction
Abstract The Zagros fold–thrust belt (ZFTB) extends for c . 2000 km from Turkey in the NW to the Hormuz Strait in the SE. This belt results from the collision of the Arabian and Eurasian plates during Cenozoic times and constitutes a morphological barrier (with some peaks exceeding 4000 m) separating the Arabian platform from the large plateaux of central Iran. To the east a pronounced syntaxis marks the transition between the Zagros collision belt and the Makran accretionary wedge. In the ZFTB, the Proterozoic to Recent stratigraphic succession pile of the southern Tethys margin is involved in huge folds detached from the Pan-African basement and offers the opportunity to study the stratigraphic and tectonic evolution of the Palaeo-Tethyan margin over large time periods. Few recent data are widely available on the southern Tethys margin as preserved in the Zagros Mountains. Since the classical works of James & Wynd (1965) and Murris (1980) , the most recent synthesis is the palaeogeographical reconstruction of the Arabian platform published by Ziegler (2001) . Many petroleum data have been acquired during the last 10 years, but few of these have been published. The Middle East Basins Evolution (MEBE) Programme, coordinated by P. Barrier and M. F. Brunet, in close relationship with colleagues of the Geological Survey of Iran, was an excellent opportunity to go back to the field and to collect new data to better constrain the evolution of this margin. In this volume, the structure of the Zagros Mountains is explored through different scales and using different approaches.
Seismic imaging of sub-circular salt-related structures: evidence for passive diapirism in the Straits of Hormuz, Persian Gulf
Salt Diapirs of the Great Kavir, Central Iran
More than 50 salt diapirs are exposed on a pediment swell in the northern Great Kavir, the largest salt desert in Iran. The diapirs’ large sizes (as much as 10 km wide), abundance, spectacular degree of exposure, and correlatable stratigraphy within them constitute a remarkable and unrivaled array of features. Hence, the Kavir diapirs provide an exceptional opportunity to investigate at the surface the style and mechanics of diapiric intrusion. Maps of the internal and external structure of the diapirs constructed from field data and remotely sensed data are interpreted in three dimensions with the aid of centrifuge and analytical modeling. Three stratigraphic units are present; the proportion of evaporites decreases upward, and the density increases. A relatively pure, gypsum-bearing Older Salt (with minor mafic flows and sills in the north) accumulated under marine conditions in the Eocene and Oligocene. The original thickness of the Older Salt is estimated to have been between 1 km and more than 2 km. The variegated Younger Salt consists of a cyclic repetition of salt, gyprock, gypsum marl, saliferous mudstone, and claystone deposited under playa and lacustrine conditions in the Miocene and possibly Oligocene. The original thickness of the Younger Salt was about 1.5 km. The youngest unit consists of at least 3 km of Miocene saliferous red shale and interbedded gyprock and fine red sand-stone, together forming the M2 and M3 Members of the Upper Red Formation (URF). Sedimentation, regional tectonics, and salt tectonics were strongly linked in the Great Kavir basin. Three late Alpine anticlines in the Elburz foreland cross the diapir province; the outer ones bound the diapir province, and the central one (Kuh-e-Gugird) divides the province into two subbasins. The West Dulasian anticline in the north is cored by an incipient salt wall 52 km long. Evidence for the relative age of regional folding and salt diapirism is equivocal. Both folding and diapirism are still active. Alternative hypotheses are presented: in the first, syndepositional regional growth folding controlled the locations of diapirs; in the second, salt diapirism controlled the site of postedpositional regional folds. To the east the pillow province consists of large, widely spaced, regional late Alpine folds superimposed on a pattern of smaller domes and basins apparently cored by pillows of Younger Salt. Twelve diapirs spaced 5.9 km apart have coalesced laterally to form a continuous mass of evaporites 40 km wide known as a salt canopy, a remarkable new class of salt structure. The canopy and a less tightly spaced cluster of discrete diapirs to the east are flanked by 30 diapirs, more erratically spaced and apparently localized along regional faults. Away from faults, diapir planforms are circular, elliptical, or egg-like—the latter indicating tilted or asymmetric diapirs with bulbs (now removed by erosion) overdeveloped above the narrow end of the egg-like planform. Second-order withdrawal basins appear to partially encircle most of the diapirs, and first-order withdrawal basins apparently enclose groups of diapirs. Diapirs are surrounded by a ductile-strain aureole whose width is 5 to 25 percent of the diapir diameter; diapir-induced brittle faulting is remarkably rare. The inner part of this aureole is a concordant shear zone comprising an updragged collar of URF overburden 20 to 600 m wide. The innermost margin of this concentric shear zone is a steep gypsum rim 20 to 200 m wide, which is all that remains of a cap rock draping the subsurface flanks of the domes. A younger cap rock is forming subaerially as a discontinuous mat of residual gypsum soil over much of the Older Salt in the diapirs. Although most of the domes are still rising, extrusive (glacial) salt is apparently restricted to small flows in two domes. Some of the Kavir diapirs have a simple structure comprising a core of Older Salt and an envelope of overlying Younger Salt. But other diapirs appear to display erosional sections through mushroom-shaped bulbs. Such bulbs have a core of Older Salt separated from a narrow, downward-facing (synformal anticline), skirtlike rim of Older Salt by a crescentic or circular, downward-facing (antiformal syncline) infold of Younger Salt. Mushroom bulbs with skirts are apparently rare in nature. But even rarer complexities than mushroom bulbs are also present in the Kavir: in at least three domes the peripheral skirt of Older Salt coils inward to form a vortex structure. Centrifuged models based on the Kavir stratigraphy simulate the exposed large-scale structure of the Kavir salt domes (though not the striking small-scale deformation) and show that mushroom diapirs are merely the more mature equivalents of the simple diapirs. Centrifuged models indicate that the salt canopy was formed by coalescence of laterally spreading, mushroom-shaped diapiric bulbs. The canopy thus represents a particularly mature type of diapiric structure. Model diapirs coalesced to form the canopy by spreading below the upper free surface (air), as we believe was the case for the Kavir canopy. Model canopies evolved from initially circular diapirs that became polygonal through mutual interference before joining to form a canopy. At this final stage the underlying diapiric stems became constricted and convoluted to form buttressed stems. The buttresses pass downward into polygonal ridges connecting adjoining diapirs; similar features appear to be present in at least part of the Kavir salt canopy. Analytical modeling of the Rayleigh-Taylor instability satisfactorily explains why the salt canopy diapirs are spaced anomalously closely. We tested the validity of linear analysis to predict the spacing of mature diapirs against the centrifuged models, whose properties and kinematics are precisely known. The analysis correctly reproduced the observed diapiric spacing in the centrifuged models. In the Kavir the observed spacing of 5.9 km was locked in when the Older Salt was overlain only by 1.5 km of Younger Salt. The narrow spacing was perpetuated during subsequent deposition of the URF over-burden because the growing salt structures were large enough to continue rising even though their close spacing was no longer the most efficient mode of growth. A viscosity ratio close to unity between the Younger and Older Salt is required to explain both the close spacing of the diapirs and the evolution of mushroom-shaped diapiric bulbs with skirts. Thermal convection can also account for the clustering of diapirs if the viscosity of both salt layers was less than 10 16 Pa s. If so, thermal effects could be superimposed on Rayleigh-Taylor instability, providing a combination that would enhance the mushroom shape and vorticity of the diapirs. In contrast to the Kavir, viscosity ratios of more than 100 between overburden and source layer have typically been estimated for other diapir provinces. For example, the 28-km observed spacing in the Zagros diapir province of southern Iran can only be modeled if the viscosity of the largely carbonate overburden is at least 100- and probably 1,000-fold greater than that of the Hormuz salt forming the Zagros diapirs. In contrast to the important effects of viscosity and of total stratigraphic thickness, the number and thickness of layers in the analytical models have much less influence on diapiric spacing. Analytical modeling of the Kavir pillow province explains the apparent absence of diapirs there as being due to slow growth of the Younger Salt pillows because the Older Salt is missing. As a result, the simple pattern of diapiric upwellings has been disrupted and overwhelmed by superposed regional folding in the foreland of the Elburz orogen.
Tectonic and Deposition Model of Late Precambrian-Cambrian Arabian and Adjoining Plates
Summary of the Geology of the Makran Coast
Abstract The following summary of the geology of the Makran coastal area is taken, with minor modification, from Harms and others (1982). Makran comprises the southern part of Pakistan and Iran between Sonmiani Bay, near Karachi, and the Straits of Hormuz (Figure 1). The area consists of a great festoon of folded and faulted Tertiary sediments extending 800 km (497 mi) from the Las Bela fold belt on the east to the Oman Line on the west (Figure 2). These eastern and western boundaries separate Makran from older terranes with deformational styles and histories distinct from that of Makran (Farah and Dejong, 1979). To the east the Las Bela fold belt represents deformation associated with the collision of India with Asia whereas to the west the Zagros Mountains of Iran represent the convergence of the Arabian and Iranian plates. In both cases, blocks of continental crust have moved northward against other continental plates, closing former deep oceanic seaways. In contrast, along Makran, it appears that only oceanic crust has been subducted beneath a continental margin composed of small plates and complex ophiolite zones. Coastal Makran and the area to the north is an accretionary wedge of deformed sediments ranging in age from perhaps Late Cretaceous to Recent, piled up at an oceanic subduction margin. The structure and depositional setting has been compared to "a typical arc model" composed of upper-slope deposits followed by lower-slope and trench deposits, progressively deformed by continuing subduction (Farhoudi and Karig, 1977). However, as an arc-trench system, Makran is hardly typical; indeed it is perhaps largely anomalous in its characteristics, as pointed out by Jacob and Quittmeyer (1979). The arc-trench gap is on the order of 500 km (311 mi), far wider than most systems. A possible Benioff zone is only weakly developed; shallow focal mechanism solutions indicate instances of tension in the downgoing oceanic slab. Volcanic centers are few and widely spaced along the arc feature. Additionally, a very large part of the accretionary prism is exposed, and a significant volume of post-middle Miocene sediments are shallow shelf deposits, not trench and slope deposits as alleged by Farhoudi and Karig (1977).