Abstract The son of John Hooke, a minister, Hooke was a sickly boy; although he ultimately lived to be nearly seventy, his parents did not entertain serious hope for his very survival during the first few years of his life. His father, one of three or four brothers, all of whom found their calling in the church, intended young Robert for the ministry also; but when persistent headaches interrupted the intended program of study, his father abandoned the plan and left the boy to his own devices. What these would be was immediately manifest. When he saw a clock being dismantled, he promptly made a working replica from wood. He constructed ingenious mechanical toys, including a model of a fully rigged man-of-war which could both sail and fire a salvo. By his tenth birthday Hooke had already embraced what his biographer Richard Waller called “his first and last Mistress”—mechanics. His role in the history of science is inextricably bound to his skill in mechanics and his allied perception of nature as a great machine. When his father died in 1648, Hooke inherited £100. Since he had displayed some artistic talent, his family packed him off to London, where his legacy was to finance an apprenticeship to Sir Peter Lely. Hooke decided to save his money; and it was his good fortune that Richard Busby, the master of Westminster School, befriended him and took him into his home. The teacher had recognized the pupil. Not only did Hooke learn Latin, the staple of the secondary curriculum, together with Greek and a smattering of Hebrew; he also discovered mathematics. By his own account he devoured the first six books of Euclid in a week, and he proceeded to apply geometry to mechanics. Nor was mathematics all. By his own account again, he learned to play twenty lessons on the organ and invented thirty ways of flying. Having exhausted the resources of Westminster, he moved on to Oxford, where he entered Christ Church as a chorister in 1653.

It has been suggested that Robert Hooke had some influence upon Nicholas Steno’s forming geotheory, but decisive evidence has not yet been given. To reconsider the Hooke–Steno relationship, this paper examines Boyle–Steno relations by not only comparing their texts but by assessing a mediating role played by Ole Borch. In investigating the origin of the Stenonian terminology “solids within solids” in his Prodromus (1669), I shall point to two possible sources. One is represented in Steno’s first dissertation De thermis (1660), which was composed under the influence not only of scholastic themes but also of physiological textbooks of the age. The other is Robert Boyle’s texts on petrifaction and mineralogy written in the 1650s and 1660s, which appeared in part in 1661 and 1672, and which were ultimately published in 2000. A similar terminology for the relations of fluid/solid bodies is also observed in Hooke’s first dissertation on capillary action (1661), Attempt for the Explication of the Phaenomena , apparently deduced from the Boylean concept of fluidity and firmness. On the other hand, Steno’s mentor Borch met Boyle in 1663 during his journey through Europe, and it is likely he transmitted Boyle’s idea to Steno, though Steno himself made no reference to Boyle by name. The fact that Boyle’s works were a possible common source for Hookian and Stenonian geoscientific thought leads us to reconsider Boyle’s contribution to the history of early modern geotheory.

Abstract As Curator of Experiments at the Royal Society of London, Robert Hooke (1635–1703) was too busy to have been considered a ‘geological traveller’. Yet he made fundamental geological observations whenever he did travel. He set these observations in a series of lectures he gave at the Royal Society over a period of some thirty years. These lectures were published posthumously by Richard Waller in 1705 as Lectures and Discourses of Earthquakes and Subterraneous Eruptions . Although his contemporary Nicolaus Stenonis, or Steno, has been recognized as the founder of geology, Hooke's more profound and compelling observations and explanations have been largely ignored by the geological community. There is also evidence that Hutton benefited considerably from Hooke's ideas. Hooke's writings show that he derived many of his geological hypotheses from his intimate knowledge of the processes taking place on the shores of his birthplace, the Isle of Wight. This paper presents what Hooke observed and described and is illustrated with photos taken by the author on the shores of the Isle of Wight.

Abstract In this chapter, we give a brief synopsis of each of the classic papers referred to in this collection. Where relevant, we reproduce the basic equations, recast in modern notation. Supporting works also are referred to. They are listed in the “General References” section. Table 1 is a quick outline of the key contributions of each paper reprinted in this book. Robert Hooke, “Potentia Restitutiva, or Spring” (Oxford, 1678) The article by Robert Hooke, “Potentia Restitutiva, or Spring,” contains the statement of the proportional relation between stress and strain universally referred to as Hooke’s law. Although the English language has evolved somewhat since 1678, the article does not require translation. Hooke describes a variety of experiments, accompanied by illustrations, confirming the stress/strain relation over a wide range of applied loads. He emphasizes the great generality of his results. Based on his experimental work from 1660 onward, Hooke first published his law in 1676 in the form of an anagram in Latin, Ceiiinosssttuv, which he later revealed to be “ut tensio sic vis.” Roughly translated, this means “as the force, so is the displacement” (Love, 1911; Boyce and DiPrima, 1976). In his treatise, Hooke examined the behavior of springs, so his first casting of the equations dealt with the restoring force on a spring, for a given displacement:

Abstract In this chapter, we give a brief synopsis of each of the classic papers referred to in this collection. Where relevant, we reproduce the basic equations, recast in modern notation. Supporting works also are referred to. They are listed in the “General References” section. Table 1 is a quick outline of the key contributions of each paper reprinted in this book. Robert Hooke, “Potentia Restitutiva, or Spring” (Oxford, 1678) The article by Robert Hooke, “Potentia Restitutiva, or Spring,” contains the statement of the proportional relation between stress and strain universally referred to as Hooke’s law. Although the English language has evolved somewhat since 1678, the article does not require translation. Hooke describes a variety of experiments, accompanied by illustrations, confirming the stress/strain relation over a wide range of applied loads. He emphasizes the great generality of his results. Based on his experimental work from 1660 onward, Hooke first published his law in 1676 in the form of an anagram in Latin, which he later revealed to be “ut tensio sic vis.” Roughly translated, this means “as the force, so is the displacement” (Love, 1911; Boyce and DiPrima, 1976). In his treatise, Hooke examined the behavior of springs, so his first casting of the equations dealt with the restoring force on a spring, for a given displacement:

Abstract The 17th and 18th centuries were periods when all the sciences began to develop and men of science showed an interest in what began later to grow into significant ways of looking at the Earth, the composition of its crust and the life forms inhabiting it. The political, social, economic and religious events of those times acted as helping influences on the way that all knowledge grew and developed, but also provided some limitations on the ways that scientific knowledge was pursued. The 18th century became widely known as ‘the Age of Enlightenment’, as it marked the ending of ignorance and darkness, but there were developments in 17th century European culture and knowledge that foreshadowed this. This paper concentrates on the work of two men of 17th century science who assisted the rise of interest in those evidences of the past life on our planet that would later become the sciences of Palaeontology and Palaeobotany. Robert Plot and Edward Lhwyd were the first custodians of the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford, and their work demonstrates that such institutions did much to advance our scientific knowledge. Although three of their contemporaries, Robert Hooke, Nicolaus Steno and John Woodward, firmly believed that fossils were of organic origin, both Plot and Lhwyd opposed these views and developed their own explanations, yet, nevertheless, produced some accurate descriptions of fossils from both animal and plant sources. Lhwyd, in particular, was very hardworking and successful in his early attempts at classification. Later in the 18th century, Richard Brookes, MD used much of their work in a highly successful compilation of current knowledge, a six-volume work on Natural History. In this he was assisted by one of the literary geniuses of his time, Oliver Goldsmith. This was an important advance in the popularization of Natural Science

Abstract In the last four centuries geologists have traversed the globe, searching for economically important materials or simply to satisfy their intellectual curiosity. Geologists have often been at the vanguard of scientific exploration. The microscopist Robert Hooke explored the Isle of Wight, and Charles Darwin the Cape Verde islands and parts of South America. The volcanic wonders of Italy and central France attracted native and foreign visitors including Lyell and Murchison. The Tyrrell brothers faced great hardship in northern Canada, as did the actor and mineralogist Charles Lewis Giesecke in Greenland. The development of Sydney, Australia depended on finding limestone for building. French geologists relied on camels in the Sahara, and Grenville Cole trusted his tricycle to carry him across Europe. Four Centuries of Geological Travel: The Search for Knowledge on Foot, Bicycle, Sledge and Camel focuses on the complexities of geological exploration and will be of particular interest to Earth scientists, historians of science and to the general reader interested in science.

Abstract In the last four centuries geologists have traversed the globe, searching for economically important materials or simply to satisfy their intellectual curiosity. Geologists have often been at the vanguard of scientific exploration. The microscopist Robert Hooke explored the Isle of Wight, and Charles Darwin the Cape Verde islands and parts of South America. The volcanic wonders of Italy and central France attracted native and foreign visitors including Lyell and Murchison. The Tyrrell brothers faced great hardship in northern Canada, as did the actor and mineralogist Charles Lewis Giesecke in Greenland. The development of Sydney, Australia depended on finding limestone for building. French geologists relied on camels in the Sahara, and Grenville Cole trusted his tricycle to carry him across Europe. Four Centuries of Geological Travel: The Search for Knowledge on Foot, Bicycle, Sledge and Camel focuses on the complexities of geological exploration and will be of particular interest to Earth scientists, historians of science and to the general reader interested in science.

Abstract Robert Hooke in the 17th century was the first scientist to consider the possibility of meteorite impact cratering, when looking at the lunar craters. Gilbert in the late 19th century considered it again when studying ‘Coon Butte’ (now known as ‘Meteor Crater’), Arizona, but attributed it to cryptovolcanism. Barringer early in the 20th century attributed the same crater to meteorite impact, as did Shoemaker in 1960–1963, the latter drawing on the results of recent nuclear cratering experiments. This crater and Wolfe Creek Crater in Western Australia are nowadays taken as type examples of the largest (1 km scale) terrestrial craters associated with actual meteorite fragments. A number of smaller impact craters associated with fragments were recognized in the 1930s in Estonia, Arabia, Australia and the USA; and, in 1949, 100 were formed by a shower of iron meteorites in Sikhote-Alin, Siberia. The dawn of the Space Age in the late 1950s saw an extensive search for larger craters and structures, and, because the many craters and structures of more than 1 km diameter so revealed on land had no meteoritic material accompaniment, a number of high-pressure shock indicators were defined — shatter cones, lamellations in quartz, high-pressure polymorphs of quartz (coesite, stishovite), amorphous silica (lechatelierite), diamonds and fullerenes, and impactite breccias with melt glass (suevite, Bunte breccia). About 170 such structures are now recorded, and they include structures more than 100 km across. Tektites, glassy bodies with splash forms and, in some cases, ablation flanges, found in strewn fields up to thousands of kilometres from the source structures are associated with a handful of such structures, but such associations are not the norm. One or two such structures have been located under the sea, and the Pliocene Eltanin structure, not truly craterform and situated beneath the Southern Pacific Ocean, has mesosiderite meteorite specks in the breccias. Isotopic methods have in many other cases indicated a trace extraterrestrial component. The global distribution is extremely uneven, with large populations recorded in Canada and the USA, Fennoscandia and Australia, and extensive blank regions in mid-Africa, Asia and South America. Despite this anomaly, not really satisfactorily explained, it is unlikely that the attribution of these terrestrial craters and structures will be overturned, although some may have been misinterpreted. It is suggested that the attribution of craters and the Maria on the Moon and craters on other bodies of the solar system to impact rather than volcanic agencies is less firmly founded, although entrenched.

Abstract Since the formulation of the “Law of Spring”, Ut Pondus sic Tensio by Robert Hooke in 1678 , elastic properties of solids have been subject of intensive research in various fields of basic and applied sciences. For example, as the interior of our planet is not directly accessible by experiment, models of the structure of the Earth are mainly based on seismic data. The interpretation of seismic wave propagation and the derivation of equations of state in geosciences require a profound knowledge of the elastic and visco-elastic properties of the constituting mineral phases. All geological materials undergo phase transitions at certain thermodynamical conditions, which can lead to dramatic variations in their elastic properties. Often the influence of the transition extends over a wide temperature and pressure range. Therefore, elasticity serves as a highly sensitive probe for the investigation of structural instabilities related to phase transitions ( Carpenter & Salje, 1998 ). Although most people are not aware, we cannot imagine life today without piezoelectric single crystals and ceramics. Most electronic devices make use of specific interactions between elastic and piezoelectric properties of crystal species like α-quartz and tourmaline. The so-called electromechanical coupling effects allow for conversion of mechanical into electrical energy and vice versa . Examples for technical applications are frequency filters and delay lines in communication technologies, ultrasound generators and clock oscillators. The pure piezoelectric effect is used in pressure sensors in combustion engines and gas turbines. In view of the importance of elasticity and piezoelectricity it is rather surprising that relatively little is known about these basic physical properties of crystals.

Abstract The Theory of Springs, though attempted by divers eminent Mathematicians of this Age has hitherto not been Published by any. It is now about eighteen years since I first found it out, but designing to apply it to some particular use, I omitted the publishing thereof. About three years since His Majesty was pleased to see the Experiment that made out this Theory tried at White-Hall , as also my Spring Watch. About two years since I printed this Theory in an Anagram at the end of my Book of the Descriptions of Helioscopes, viz.ceiiinosssttuu,id eft, Ut tenfio fic vis , That is, The Power of any Spring is in the same proportion with the Tension thereof: That is, if one power stretch or bend it one space, two will bend it two, and three will bend it three, and so forward. Now as the Theory is very short, so the way of trying it is very easie. Take then a quantity of even-drawn Wire, either Steel, Iron, or Brass, and coyl it on an even Cylinder into a Helix of what length or number of turns you please, then turn the ends of the Wire into Loops, by one of which suspend this coyl upon a nail, and by the other sustain the weight that you would have to extend it, and hanging on several Weights observe exactly to what length each of the weights do extend it beyond the length that its own weight doth stretch it to, and you