Abstract In teaching structural geology, I have found it useful to design cartoon metaphors intended to quicken the grasp of meaning of terms, processes, and concepts. Structural geology places strong emphasis on deducing three-dimensional (3-D) forms and how they evolve. Visual metaphors ease students from the ordinary and familiar to the more abstract and unfamiliar. Cartoons can convey understanding in seconds. Analysis of the 67 visual metaphors in Structural Geology of Rocks and Regions shows that they are classified into a hierarchy of types, from simple literal metaphors to higher-order kinematic and dynamic metaphors. Most of these occur in chapters that present fundamentals; these chapters contain the least descriptive, most abstract materials. The visual metaphors aid student learning in unfamiliar territory. The basis for how this works is illuminated by theories of certain cognitive scientists, linguists, and psychologists who increasingly emphasize that conceptual metaphors are fundamental modes of thought, not just modes of language. Our minds continuously integrate vital relations from diverse scenarios, and this is what allows us to see connections between the familiar and the unfamiliar. The most powerful metaphors are analogical comparisons of relationships between objects, not simply literal comparisons of attributes of objects. In this study, the kinematic metaphors appear to be the most effective in grounding 3-D visualization. They express incremental movement and change. When kinematics of development of 3-D forms is grasped, it becomes easier to visualize the complete 3-D forms, even when only small bits of the final forms can be observed.

Abstract The IGCP 509 project is collating global information for the Palaeoproterozoic era through the activities of numerous international collaborators. A database system (StratDB) and web interface has been designed to facilitate this process with links to an existing geochronology database (DateView). As a result, all information captured will remain available in a digital format for future researchers. The philosophy and design of the database and some of the outputs available from it are described. One of the principal features of the system is that it facilitates the construction of time–space correlation charts using an innovative application of GIS technology to non-geographic information, which permits users to query a variety of attribute information associated with lithostratigraphic units, metamorphic and deformation episodes associated with user-selected tectonic domains, large igneous provinces and major ore deposits. In the process, much of the manual labour normally associated with the construction of such charts in standard graphical or drafting packages is avoided. Associations between units, deformation, metamorphism, large igneous provinces and ore deposits may become more apparent once linked information is available for querying and investigation. Geochronological information from the DateView database may also be linked to entities stored in StratDB. GIS maps may be linked to the attribute information in StratDB and DateView to construct a variety of time-slice maps or palaeogeographic reconstructions with the same symbology as is used in the time–space correlation charts. This database system will facilitate the dissemination of lithostratigraphic information for many countries to a broader community and will help non-specialists to easily view information for various Palaeoproterozoic tectonic domains. The system is illustrated using a preliminary compilation of information for the Palaeoproterozoic of southern Africa. The correlation charts and time-slice maps provide insights to the geological evolution of this region which emphasize some aspects and correlations which have not previously been extensively considered; for instance, possible correlation of units in the central and western zones of the Limpopo Belt (South Africa, Zimbabwe and Botswana) with the Magondi Belt of Zimbabwe and its extension into northern Botswana.

Abstract Oil and gas exploration and production in foreign countries are guided by the same science and engineering principles as in the United States and Canada, but the political, economic, social, and cultural environment of developing countries can be quite different. Politics and personal relationships play a greater role in business, especially in energy, where in most countries the state owns subsurface minerals. Investors must deal more with government and often with a state-owned energy company. Most international energy investments are long term and are at risk to changes in price, taxation, profit share, and operational control, even given exploration success. Political risk is defined as the likelihood that future unilateral government actions, dissident political forces, or social movements will deteriorate the return on planned foreign investment. Investors cannot precisely predict the future, notwithstanding sophisticated modelers’ quantified calculations. We advise testing plans against possible future “what-if” scenarios, mitigating harm through good geology/technology and calculation of risk capacity, and through detailed, intimate knowledge of the country and people with whom investors will do business. Sources of information are provided, as well as advice on relationships with host-country persons. The content of the contract and the personal relations developed during the negotiation phase establish the context and parameters within which the company will operate. Particularly important are interests in parallel with the host government, contractual flexibility, and the ability of the company technology to deliver results that may exceed expectations. Negotiating tips are provided. Outside arbitration, risk insurance, and partnering are assessed as ways to lessen risk. There are many successful international operations. Those who want to work and live in the exciting and rewarding energy professions should consider the international arena, where the greatest opportunies currently seem to be for the oil and gas business.

Abstract Companies have many countries from which to select when deciding where to spend their limited exploration and development budgets. The evolutionary trends in the investment environment tend to be different for developed, developing, and transitional economies. In developed economies there are issues such as access to land, security of tenure, the not-in-my-backyard syndrome, native title, and permitting delays. In developing nations, the main trend has been to reduce barriers to investment by reforming the regulatory and fiscal systems. Likewise, transition economies have also initiated reform efforts, but these often proceed in a number of steps as socialist ways of approaching the sector are progressively relinquished, typically in several phases of reform. This study identifies over 60 factors that may influence a company’s investment decision to invest in one country versus another. There are numerous criteria that can influence the decision process and these can be used to rank countries. The investment criteria can be divided into nine principal categories: geologic, political, regulatory, marketing, fiscal, monetary, environmental and social, operational and profit criteria, and when applied in a systematic way, can yield a profile of both geologic prospectivity and country risk. Strategies used by governments to attract investment include means by which perceptions concerning geologic prospectivity can be enhanced, as in the provision of information regarding the geologic environment and availability of open ground, regulatory system improvements, and direct marketing. This study concludes that nations can improve the likelihood of mineral sector investment by taking steps to satisfy investor decision criteria through informed policies and laws. Over the past two decades more than 110 nations have revised their mining and related laws or made major amendments to them. The result has been a lowering of many regulatory and fiscal risks; however, many risks remain that are beyond the control of government.