Abstract Over the past 100 years, hydrogeology has played a role in most military operations undertaken by the USA. The first significant application by US forces took place during World War I, on the Western Front. America's entry into World War II highlighted the need for military hydrogeologists once again, and a combination of civilian and uniformed hydrogeologists provided valuable support to the war effort, notably by terrain analysis. During the Cold War, the United States Geological Survey Military Geology Branch conducted military hydrogeological studies, and in 1985 the US Army Corps of Engineers created the Water Detection Response Team (WDRT) to provide hydrogeological expertise to military well-drilling units. During the Persian Gulf War of 1990–1991, groundwater was important for sustaining troops living in the northern Saudi Arabian desert. Operations in Bosnia and Kosovo later in that decade required the assistance of the WDRT in obtaining adequate groundwater supplies for base camps. Current military operations in Afghanistan rely on groundwater as a significant source for most US bases. In combination, uniformed and civilian geologists serving in a variety of roles to support American troops have located water supplies essential to the success of US military operations around the globe.

Abstract During the 19th Century, the British military pioneered geological mapping and teaching, and the operational use of Norton tube wells. In the First World War, the British army appointed its first military hydrogeologist to serve as such, to develop water-supply maps for Belgium and northern France and guide deployment of Royal Engineer units drilling boreholes into the Cretaceous Chalk of the Somme region and Tertiary sands beneath the Flanders plain. Similar well-boring units were also deployed with geological guidance in the northeastern Mediterranean region. All military geologists were demobilized after hostilities ceased, but wartime experience was quickly drawn together in the first Royal Engineer textbook on water supply. During the Second World War, several British military well-drilling units were raised and deployed, notably to East Africa and North Africa as well as northern France, normally with military geological and sometimes (in Africa) with military geophysical technical direction. A reduced well-drilling capability has since been retained by the British army, through the Cold War to the present day, supported by a small group of reserve army geologists to contribute basic hydrogeological expertise to the armed forces for peace-time projects and war-related operations.

INTRODUCTION The Story of Airborne Electromagnetics After the end of World War II, the reconstruction of war-ravaged economies fueled a great demand for natural resources. The emerging Cold War caused explorationists to seek secure supplies in countries geographically and politically close to the United States. With vast areas that were then little explored, Canada was one obvious choice. These circumstances provided a great incentive to develop geophysical methods whereby a sparsely populated country, where the climate is often harsh and frigid for part of the year, could be scanned quickly and effectively for deposits of strategic base metals, such as copper, lead, zinc, and nickel. Airborne magnetometer systems that were developed from early war-time prototypes used in submarine detection became widely used in mineral exploration in Canada. However, it soon became obvious that the magnetic information was of more value indirectly in aiding geologic reconnaissance than it was directly in ore exploration. The abundance of magnetic bodies in deformed metamorphic terrains with base metal potential made it difficult to select specific targets for more detailed exploration on the ground. An alternative or additional technique was, therefore, required to carry out prospecting from the air.

Abstract The potential for cross-country mobility (CCM) by vehicles has increasingly become an integral part of tactical planning for military operations and depends on a multitude of parameters. A comprehensive trafficability forecast requires the analysis of terrain, including slope, land cover and soil properties, and weather, as well as specific vehicle parameters. Terrain and weather interactions were recognized as important for the first time during World War I, when all types of vehicle would frequently bog down in muddy ground. The lessons learned influenced the orientation of future German military geology. During World War II, German military geologists and engineers prepared their first CCM maps. However, these often lacked a consistent format and standardized analysis. During the Cold War, the US Army carried out extensive research to create empirical mobility models based on physical properties and trafficability tests. These results were incorporated into the production of CCM maps. Present day computer-based data processing and analysis have opened up the possibility of enhancements to trafficability forecasting and thus make a vital contribution to providing the armed forces with advice on exercises and operations.

Abstract In many parts of the world, the regeneration, economic growth and social changes that took place in the two decades that followed the Second World War, led to increased leisure time and tourism and a greater awareness of the world around us. In addition, the realization of our ability to destroy both ourselves and the environment in which we live, clearly evident during the Cold War years, led to a greater appreciation of the fragile nature of the natural environment. By the late 1960s, increasing loss of countryside to development, and the ability to see our planet from space, led to an enhanced regard of the fragility of the environment in which we live. By the 1970s an environmental revolution, with conservation at its core, was in full swing, highlighted by the pioneering 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment held in Stockholm. By the 1990s the Earth Summit, held in Rio in 1992, had placed the environment, through its role in achieving sustainable development, on the global political and social agenda. Today, it is climate change that reminds us that we have the power to do irreparable damage to the natural environment that supports us. This book provides the first collection of papers to address the history of geoconservation. It seeks to explore the origins of the subject and the concepts that helped to define it; it describes the history of geoconservation in the UK, looks more widely to the Republic of Ireland, mainland Europe and Australia and explores

Abstract The 400-m-high Rock of Gibraltar is a partly overturned klippe of Early Jurassic dolomitic limestone, notched by raised shorelines and flanked by Quaternary scree breccias and windblown sands. It dominates a narrow 5-km-long peninsula jutting south from Spain at the western entrance to the Mediterranean Sea. Fortified from at least 1160 to World War II successively by the Moors, Spanish, and British, and subjected to 15 major sieges between 1309 and the Cold War of 1947 to 1989, Gibraltar is arguably one of the most densely fortified and fought over places in Europe. Stone walls, bastions, and numerous artillery positions built to enhance the natural defenses of the coastal cliffs now provide a tourist attraction, but constrain development of the modern city. Occasional rockfalls and the need for slope-safety measures are continuing concerns, especially in areas of scree breccia quarried to provide fill for the extension of a Royal Navy harbor between 1893 and 1905 and a Royal Air Force airfield largely between 1941 and 1943. Water supply has posed a problem throughout the history of the fortress, leading to innovative development of rainwater catchment areas on natural slopes, dual potable/sanitary water supplies, and projects to enhance these by cloud condensation or groundwater abstraction, before near total commitment to desalination from 1993. Tunnels and underground chambers are major features of the Rock. Mostly excavated in five phases between 1782 and 1968 to provide access, reservoirs, accommodation, or storage, they now total over 50 km in length, generally unlined. Tunnel integrity is dependent on excavation technique and bedrock characteristics. From the early eighteenth century to recent years, much of the major construction work on Gibraltar was directed and often carried out by Royal Engineers. In 1994, disbandment of 1st (Fortress) Specialist Team RE brought over two centuries of British military engineering on the Rock to an end—and provided a legacy of works and land now largely inherited by civilian bodies responsible to the Gibraltar government.

Abstract Britain is littered with active and disused military airfields, arguably the most distinctive feature of its twentieth-century defenses. More than 850 airfields were active during World War II, covering about 162000 hectares or 0.7% of the national land area. Today, fewer than 50 remain active, the majority having been transferred to ground defense roles, civil flying, agriculture, and other land uses. There is a strong spatial association between the leading air bases and well-drained Middle Jurassic limestone, Upper Cretaceous chalk, and Quaternary fluvioglacial sands and gravels. Peacetime consolidation at a dwindling number of key bases has intensified impacts on these permeable lithologies, which are vulnerable to groundwater contamination, soil degradation, and erosion of landscapes rich in ecological and archaeological heritage. Demolition for agriculture has been uncoordinated and incomplete. Alternative uses include laboratories, prisons, and motor racing, many introduced without environmental controls. Asset stripping of valuable infrastructure has become a public issue since the ending of the Cold War. Disused airfields are now the foci of comprehensive regeneration schemes. Options include mineral extraction, afforestation, new towns, and runway conversion to airports. Decision making involves careful assessment of geological resources, geologic hazards, and available remediation technologies within the framework of a systematic environmental audit. Britain’s “airfield problem” is the unique product of a densely settled countryside, a rich aeronautical history, and an imperfect planning system. Experience gained trying to solve this problem has many international applications.

Abstract An army, the Bundeswehr , was created in the Federal Republic of Germany in 1956, from the 1960s supported by full-time geologists employed as civilians but with reserve army military ranks. A peak geologist strength (about 20) was achieved in the 1980s, to provide expertise that included hydrogeology. Roles in these Cold War years were confined to Germany, but included guidance to ensure that potable water would be available both to the civilian population and armed forces during a state of emergency, and the optimum siting of boreholes to supply water to military installations. In 1993, Bundeswehr troops deployed overseas, to support United Nations (UN) peace-keeping operations in Somalia. Military geological expertise was used to site wells that enhanced secure water supplies for German and other UN personnel, and the civilian population. In 1999, Bundeswehr troops were among those of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) deployed to Kosovo. Wells to supply water to German troops in Albania and Yugoslavian Macedonia prior to deployment, and in Kosovo itself, were drilled under civilian contract but military geologist guidance. From 2002, Bundeswehr troops joined coalition forces in Afghanistan. Well drilling was again guided by military geologist expertise, but contract drilling proved inadequate, so was supplemented by rigs operated by military engineers. These operations have proved the value to the Bundeswehr of retaining military expertise in both hydrogeology and well drilling.

Historical Development During the last two decades, the United States government has emphasized the environmental remediation of the subsurface contamination which is a legacy of the previous decades of the U.S.-Soviet Cold War. This legacy includes radioactive, chemical, and biological contamination at thousands of sites across the country. The cleanup was, and remains, costly, with many problems solvable only with the development of new technologies. The early development of electrical resistance tomography (ERT) was mainly in response to the need for new technologies to generate high-resolution images of the shallow subsurface. Also, much of the early use of ERT was site characterization or process monitoring for soil and groundwater cleanup.