The effectiveness of a computer application depends on, among other things, an efficient user interface. In order to visualize subsurface geologic phenomena using the Google Earth™ application, we initially employed the built-in Google Earth time slider. Dragging the slider's right thumb elevated a COLLADA model that initially loads at a subsurface altitude. However, the double-thumb feature of the time slide caused users some difficulties. It is not possible to turn off this feature when not required, so it can be misleading to users. Because of this and because of the need for more control, we transitioned from the stand-alone Google Earth application to the web-based Google Earth plug-in. To overcome some of the limitation for the existing user interface, such as the inability to make controls appear semitransparent, we designed and implemented a screen overlay using the plug-in's application programming interface. This approach opened new possibilities to build more customizable user interfaces. A demonstration of the approach and sample usage of JavaScript to create buttons, draggable images, slides, and slider controls is presented.

College geoscience departments keep archives of student research ranging from senior theses to master's and Ph.D. dissertations. In field geology, these archives often include maps, cross sections, stereographic projections, field notes and photographs, hand specimens, and thin sections. Subsequent publications may result from the thesis work, but much of this valuable legacy data is difficult to access and assess. Here we describe the conversion of a pre–digital-era thesis on the Vredefort Rim Synclinorium in South Africa from hard copy to digital format using Keyhole Markup Language (KML) to drape maps and inset photographs, and COLLADA (COLLAborative Design Activity) models to create stereographic projections, emergent cross sections, and virtual specimens. In addition to using the Google Earth terrain to fine-tune draped map locations, errors in field locations arising from pace and compass or bearing methods of geo-location that preceded the availability of Global Positioning Systems (GPS) were recognized and corrected. At 2.023 billion years in age and an estimated 300 km in original diameter, the Vredefort Dome is the world's oldest and largest known impact structure. The Vredefort region has been designated a World Heritage Site and specimen collection is prohibited. Only a few geologists are ever likely to visit the region, so geo-referenced field photography, specimens, and structural data are irreplaceable. An interpretative center is being planned for the Vredefort structure by South African authorities and our interactive Google Earth resources will be made available to the visiting public as well as those browsing over the Internet. Thus draped maps and scanned models provide an invaluable opportunity for enhanced instruction, continued research, and public outreach.

Google Earth includes digital elevation models and surface imagery for the Earth, Moon, and Mars, but not for Venus. To help geoscientists visualize Venusian geology, geophysics, and geodynamics, we have built a “Google Venus” virtual globe on a Google Earth foundation. We present here details of how this was done and offer regional samples to show the power of the virtual globe, combined with space mission imagery, and COLLADA models in displaying surface data and global, crust-to-core cross sections. We show how web data sources can be linked to Venusian locations in an engaging, interactive format. Our approach could be adapted to other planets and moons of the Solar System and to models of exoplanets.

Two sets of learning activities in Google Earth were developed for use by geoscience majors and non-science majors. The first activity aimed to foster undergraduate students' understanding of the geography and basic geology of Iceland. We tested the efficacy of this activity for learning with 300 undergraduates from a university in the southeastern part of the United States. In terms of post- versus pre-test scores we found: (1) overall learning gains when collapsing over type of prior knowledge and gender, (2) no differences in learning gains when comparing those with prior coursework in geology or geography to other students without such prior coursework, and (3) no differences in learning gains when comparing males and females. In terms of items completed during the lab exercise, again we found no differences by prior coursework (prior geology, prior geography, or none), and no differences by gender. Lastly, moderate positive correlations were found between students' pre-test and post-test scores, as well as between students' embedded lab scores and post-test scores. For the second activity, we developed a laboratory activity about the classic Tonga region of the west Pacific in order to support undergraduate students' understanding of: (1) the physical geography of the Tonga Subduction System, (2) the dynamic geological processes involved in plate movement, subduction, magmatic arc evolution, and trench rollback, and (3) geological processes resulting from subduction, including volcanism, and earthquake formation. Using the program called Sketch-Up, we created 3-D COLLADA (three-dimensional COLLAborative Design Activity) models that are viewable as four-dimensional animations in the Google Earth API (application programming interface; a web-based version of Google Earth) to help demonstrate several geophysical processes. These animations potentially have a wide range of learning application from basic to more abstract ideas. Specifically, the learning objects created involve the Pacific Plate subducting underneath the Australian Plate in the Tonga Region. These are designed to help show subduction, active and dormant volcanoes, back-arc spreading, trench rollback, and migration of the tear point that marks the northern termination of the subduction system. We tested the efficacy of this activity with 127 undergraduates from a university in the southeastern part of the United States. In terms of post- versus pre-test scores we found: (1) overall learning gains when collapsing over type of prior knowledge and gender, (2) no differences in learning gains when comparing those with prior coursework in geology or geography to other students without this prior coursework; and (3) no differences in learning gains when comparing males and females. For the lab activity itself, we found no differences by prior coursework (geology and/or geography versus none), but found a gender difference favoring males; however this learning did not show up as statistically significant at post-test (as previously mentioned). Lastly, moderate positive correlations were found between students' pre-test and lab scores. Data is discussed with respect to Google Earth's utility to convey basic geoscience principles to non-geology undergraduates and its potential impact on public understanding. This is important and aligned with many current educational reform efforts (the American Association for the Advancement of Science, National Science Education Standards), which call for broader scientific literacy.

Abstract The productivity of wells in fractured reservoirs depends, in terms of rate and sustainability, on the heterogeneity and variable connectivity of the open fracture network. Outcrop studies in Cretaceous carbonates from the Catalan Pyrenees illuminate this issue and reveal the degree of uncertainty associated with the interpretation of fracture data from wells and seismic. Three examples are chosen to provide verifiable data, parameters and concepts which can be applied to the workflow of fractured reservoir characterization. We discuss fracture properties and distributions in the subseismic volume, the coupled behaviour between litho-mechanical properties, in situ stress and fracturing, and the permeability properties of fault damage zones. The outcrops also highlight some of the difficulties involved in constructing static reservoir models and evaluating fracture interpretations derived from software-based techniques such as surface curvature.