Agricola's Bermannus (1530) and his “minor” works describe his career as an expert in mining knowledge. If we examine the period after publication of his collected works in 1546, Bermannus and the other works provide additional keys for understanding the influence of Agricola on development of the mineralogical and geological sciences in Italy. These publications also offer a way of understanding the link between the culture of the humanists and that of the practitioners; this, after all, led to the birth of the empirical sciences. Agricola's fourfold classification of fossil objects (earth, concretionary juice, stone, metal) improved considerably the twofold classification by Aristotle and became an influential paradigm for the scientists of the late sixteenth century that was further refined and developed as to the genetic environment of different types by Aldrovandi and Imperato.

Philosophy which treats of the origins, causes and natures of things, Illustrious Prince, has been divided into many parts and must explain very difficult things. For example, it expounds the divinity and reality of God, the heavens and stars, the elements, causes, interrelationships between these things, changes in the atmosphere, as well as living and subterranean bodies and their origins. The concept of God has aroused all nations and peoples but the Jews, Egyptians and Greeks were the first to consider the nature of God. The Chalddeans after long observation and the Greeks after careful study came to know the stars and learned to measure the heavens. The Greeks, more than any other people, studied the elements, their causes, and the interrelationship between natural bodies. Aristotle considered the movements and changes in the atmosphere as well as the species, nature and origin of living matter. Theophrastus has discussed the causes and natures of original life. But the subject of subterranean things in which we are most interested has never been properly treated. We have already considered the origins and causes of subterranean things. 1 Some of these flow from the earth while others are dug out of it. We have discussed the nature of the former in a previous treatise. 2 In the next ten books we will discuss the distinctive features, physical characters and useful properties of those things which are dug up. The first of these books considers the distinctive features and discusses the origins of all mineral matter; the . . .

Abstract Based on reprocessed offshore seismic lines acquired during oil and gas exploration in the 1980s, we reconstruct the formation and reactivation of major fault systems in the southern Baltic Sea area since the late Paleozoic. The geological evolution of different crustal blocks from the Caledonian Avalonia–Baltica collision until the Late Cretaceous–Paleogene inversion tectonics is also examined. The detected fault systems occur in the northern part of the Trans-European Suture Zone (TESZ) and belong either to the late Paleozoic Tornquist Fan or to the complex Western Pomeranian Fault System (WPFS) generated during Mesozoic extensional movements. While the NW–SE-trending deep Wiek Fault separates the Arkona High from the Middle Rügen Block, the NNW–SSE-trending Agricola Fault demarcates the Middle Rügen Block to the Falster Block in the west. Together with the Plantagenet Fault and numerous younger faults in the Mesozoic cover, it forms the Agricola Fault System. Furthermore, structural analyses of the Prerow Fault Zone above the Prerow salt pillow and the Werre Fault Zone crossing the Grimmen High indicate a complex fault history.

In Classical Times knowledge of minerals was based almost entirely upon philosophical speculations. Interesting theories were never tested by direct observations and mining was not a socially acceptable occupation. Little attention was given to mining and minerals, other than gems, and then only as an adjunct to the broader theories concerning the origin of the Universe. Although there may have been earlier writers Aristotle is the first known to us to have presented a comprehensive theory of the origin and nature of minerals. In his Meteorologica he advanced the theory that all natural substances consisted of four properties, dryness, dampness, heat and cold, and these were combined in the four primitive elements, water, air, earth and fire, elements that could be transmuted by altering the relative proportions of the properties. This concept dominated the thinking of man for the next two thousand years. Another early treatise on minerals was De Mineralibus by Theophrastus, a contemporary of Aristotle. Theophrastus accepted the theory of four primitive elements and separated mineral substances into two classes, those affected by heat and those not affected. The next important work on minerals was the monumental Natural History of Pliny, an encyclopedia of the entire field of Nature, written in 77 a.d . In it are collected all the theories, fables and observations of Greek, Latin and Oriental writers up to that time. This work served as the authority and source book for writers on Natural History subjects for sixteen centuries, although it did not dominate or shape . . .

Mineral substances vary greatly in color, transparency, luster, brilliance, odor, taste, and other properties which are shown by their strength and weakness, shape, and form. They do not have the variety of origins that we find not only in living matter but also in original matter. Moreover they have not been classified like the latter on the basis of the place where they pass their life since mineral substances lack life and with rare exceptions are found only within the earth. They do not have the differences in characters and actions which nature has given to living things alone. Great differences are not the essential features of minerals as they are of living and original matter. Minerals have no dissimilar portions made up of similar materials. For example, a mineral we call “complex” nature forms from different kinds of simple substances, none of them dissimilar. The substances we call similar the Greeks usually call δνοιομερής while dissimilar substances are called ἀνομοιομερής . Many minerals form from a single species, a few from many similar species. For example, each unit of red ocher is red ocher; each unit of alum, alum; asbestos, asbestos; gold, gold. All species of earth, congealed juice, stone, and metal are composed of single species except certain stones which are composed of two or more species. These stones are recognized by the presence of spots, veins, and areas that glitter like the stars. They may imitate different things by color variations. Thus from the minerals that come to . . .

They distinguish one earth from another on the basis of utility and the different uses it offers to artisans. One is useful to farmers for nourishing and supporting plant life. Another is used by physicians, for example, Lemnian, Samian, and Armenian earths. Sculptors and potters use another such as the clay which is called creta by the potters. From this each fashions and shapes his works. Some are used by carpenters, for example red ocher which, for that reason, is called fabrilis. Painters have used Paraetonian, Melian, and other earths. Fullers use others such as Oimolian. Silversmiths use creta argentaría and many other earths are used by other artisans. This classification does not consider the true nature of earths and fails to distinguish sufficiently one earth from another. For example, Egyptian earth is both cultivated and used as a medicament. Red ocher ( rubrica ) is used by physicians, artisans, and painters. Cimolian earth is indispensable to fullers and physicians. Therefore, if we classify earths as medical, potter’s, artisan’s, etc., we have to place the same earth in several species and genera. Since a substance cannot be transferred from its own genus to another genus, medical earth, potter’s earth artisan’s earth, etc., cannot be species. While the mass of common people may distinguish one earth from another in this way, the expert in natural history who must treat his subject correctly cannot use this classification. Some earths are classified as distinct species under genera according to the place or region where they are found and from which they take

There are many species of earths which can be used by artisans for various purposes. I have described these earths, as I know them, in the previous book. I shall now take up the next class of minerals, congealed juices, of which, as I have said, there are four genera. The first embraces halite and nitrum ; the second, alum, atramentum sutorium , and related minerals as well as the acrid juices; the third, sulphur, bitumen, realgar, and orpiment; the fourth, chrysocolla , aerugo , caeruleum , ferrugo , etc. I shall discuss each species in these four genera beginning with halite. Sal (halite, salt) is known as both a natural mineral and an artificial product. Halite produced by Nature is found both within the earth and on its surface. When it occurs within the earth it is either quarried out of the mountains, or mined from beneath the fields or sands that cover it. The latter are stripped off before the mineral is recovered. There are many famous mountains of halite in the world. In Germany there is a salt lake just to the north of Seburg and rock salt occurs near the gateway of the Caspian Sea. It is not quarried at either place since, at the former locality, a river flows from the lake and carries particles of halite with it and in the latter region salt pits are common. From these the salt workers draw off liquid so rich that they have no need for the natural mineral. Halite is mined in . . .

I shall now take up a second unctuous juice which is naturally related to sulphur and is called ἄσφαλτοσ by the Greeks. The Latins have named it bitumen . Included under this name are not only the substances the older writers placed here but also naphtha ( naphtha ), camphor ( camphora ), maltha ( maltha ), pittasphalt ( pissasphaltus ), jet ( gagates ), Samothracian gem, thracius stone, obsidianus stone and many others classified by Pliny as gems, and natural carbons as well as the earth called ἀμπελῖτις by the Greeks. Amber ( succinum ) is also included here. This juice is known by so many different names because of variations and qualities by which it is distinguished and because of the discourses of the people in whose countries it either originates or is sold. First of all the liquid (which people experienced in the nature of things correctly call “liquid bitumen” since it is usually distilled from the solid), being similar to olive oil, is especially unctuous and has been named oleum (oil) by various writers at different times and is now called petroleum (petroleum) because it flows from rocks. This same black juice, when liquid, is called pix (pitch) by others because of the similarity in color to that of pitch. From this it is apparent that the name and nature of this substance was evident and well known to some and obscure and unknown to others. Thus many names have been given to one and the same thing and, at the same time, many more names coming from the . . .

I have said that there are four genera of stones, the first, in brief review, is called common stone and embraces lodestone, hematite, geodes and a great many other species. Minerals of the second genera are called gems and include diamond, smaragdus , carbunculus and similar species. The third genus is much larger and since the species may have the brilliancy of polished gems it is called marble. Members of this genera are identified principally by color and place of origin, typical species being phyrites , ophites , Parian and Laconian marbles and others. Species of the fourth genus are called rocks and differ from stones. This genus embrances sandstone, limestone and others. May I speak first of the stones of the first genera and first of all about lodestone since it is the most famous and noted of all because of its singular and chracteristic power of drawing iron to itself. Because of this property the Greeks have many names for it. It is known as magnes , magnetis , heraclius and sideritis . The name magnes comes either from the name of the man who first found it on Mt. Ida, according to Pliny who took this story from Nicander, or from the district Magnesia in which lodestone is found. Lucretius writes in these words, “The Magnesians call it by the patriotic name of the Greeks, Magnes because it is found within the borders of their country.” It is called magnetis by others for the same reason. The name heraclius comes either from . . .

A gem, as I have said, is exceptionally hard and transparent, as the diamond and smaragdus , or it is exceptionally beautiful because it is adorned with pleasing or variable colors as most species of jaspis. Transparency, unusual beauty of color, luster and brilliancy are, in great part, responsible for the value. However, even though some congealed juices such as salt, nitrum , alumen and atramentum sutorium are transparent they cannot be numbered among the gems because they are not hard and for the same reason gypsum and silver-colored mica which are also transparent. Nor the stones which melt in a fire although they have the same colors and are as transparent as gems. Tephrites , diphyes , enorchis , cryptopetra , tecolithos and similar stones are not classed as gems because they cannot be cut, they are not brilliant, nor are they adorned with beautiful or variable colors. For the same reasons asbestos, bostrychites , corsoides , polia and spartopolios which are names for asbestos are not regarded as gems. On the other hand hematite, lysimachia , arabica , alabastrites , meroctes , obsidianus , siderites and similar stones are classed as gems because these stones as well as small fragments of marble are cut and polished and to a limited extent set in rings. However we will not treat these minerals here. A small piece of hematite does not differ from a large mass either in color or porperties, only in size. Lysimachia is the same as Rhodian marble; arabica , as Arabian marble; capniies , as marble with smoky spirals; alabastros , as alabastrites ; exhebenus , as samius lapis ; obsidiana . . .

In the previous book I spoke at length about gems. I will now consider marbles. The name comes from the fact that it has a fine luster when polished. 1 Marbles have been classified as gems and actually small polished pieces are sometimes set in rings. The gem lysimachia is cut from Rhodian marble; arabica , from Arabian marble; and meroctes , from thyites. These cut stones differ from marble however in color and markings and these features have given rise to a large number of species. True marbles are usually named from the place they are found, with a few exceptions such as Luculleum, Augustum, Tiberium, etc. Luculleum marble is named for L. Lucullus, Consul, who was the first to bring this particular marble to Rome from an island in the Nile. The latter two were named in deference to the importance of these two men. The former, found in Egypt, is an ophite with markings similar to a snake. The latter resembles Ethiopian basaltes with the color and hardness of iron. I shall consider first the white marbles since these embrace the most famous varieties used by sculptors in statues, for example, Parian, Chian, Cretan, etc. The first comes from the island of Paros and was called lapis lychnites by the Greeks, according to Varro, because it was first mined and used for lamps. Pausanias writes that Phidias carved his statue of Nemesis at Rhamnus, Attica, from this stone. However the statue above the temple is of Parian marble and was . . .

A metal, as I have said, is a natural mineral body that may be liquid, as is quicksilver, or hard although it may melt in a fire as does gold, silver copper, and lead, or become soft as does iron. Metals are found in veins, either pure or mixed with earth and stone. I shall describe the pure metal first and then take up the veins from which each is recovered, i.e., the mixed and compound minerals of that genus. The older writers have held that only gold and true quicksilver are found in veins. Pliny, who has compiled the writings of the Greeks and Latins in his Natural History, denies that silver is ever found pure. He writes that it never occurs naturally in its true form and never has the sparkling brilliancy of gold. However, all the mines of Germany cry out with one voice against this conclusion. Pure silver, copper, iron and bismuth are dug from the earth. The other two genera of “ lead” minerals 1 are found almost pure. However, the true, virgin metal created originally within the earth is either simple, such as quicksilver, always, tin and iron, almost always, and silver, commonly, or mixed with another metal, usually gold, copper, lead or bismuth. The oldest writers, Diemachus, Megasthenes, Aristeas, Herodotus and many others, have said that gold is found pure. Whenever I think about their writings the present methods of recovering gold are brought to my mind and I am always led to the . . .

Nature may tint metals with a color that is foreign to them. The true color of copper is red yet sometimes it occurs yellow. The Greeks call this όρείχαλκος. Sometimes copper is white and this is called ψευδάργυρος. The latter has the appearance of silver, the former the appearance of gold. Pliny writes that the yellow copper has a characteristic and pleasing beauty by day. Strabo writes that the white copper was made in Teuthrania near Andera and in Lydia near Mt. Tmolus. Copper can be colored artificially to imitate nature. Native cadmia 1 is added to copper to make brass ( orichalcum ). According to Pliny at one time Livian copper was used chiefly in making brass and later, Marian copper. Brass is made in the following way. Alternate layers of the best broken copper and cadmia are placed in a tall crucible. When it is full it is lowered into a furnace in a space that has been hollowed out and is fired as if it were in a covered passage. When entirely melted, the copper is changed into brass with the color of gold. This is the common method. By another method sheets of copper three-quarters of an inch wide are placed in a crucible similar to those used in casting silver but having the outside covered with a clay containing iron scale and the inside covered with the most highly refined honey. The thin sheets of copper are also coated with honey. They then sprinkle over the copper a . . .

There are two bismuth minerals among the mixed substances, one black, the other almost gray. It is customary to include here the lead minerals that are yellow, light red, and black as well as the iron minerals that are black or red. I shall now consider certain species of the fourth genus that have been given specific names, for example, galena, pyrite, cadmia, andstibnite. Plumbago (galena) takes its name from plumbum. The Latins have taken this word from the Greek word μολίβδαινα. Each has taken the name from lead, which it contains and which the Greeks call μόλιβδος. As a rule, it also resembles lead in color. Pliny calls this mineral galena. This is either a Spanish word or if from some other tongue its origin is unknown I am sure. Following the Greeks certain writers divide this mixed compound that Pliny calls galena into three varieties. The first variety Dioscorides has called μολιβδοειδής λίθος and we correctly call it a stone that has the appearance of lead or, as we say, plumbarius; the second Dioscorides calls μολίβδιτίδια ἄμμος and we call it plumbaria arena. The third Dioscorides calls μολίβδαινασ and we call it plumbago. The latter was mined near Sebastia which is not far from Corycos, Cilicia. Galen did not mention the stone that has the appearance of a species of lead as a separate variety nor did he mention plumbaria arena. However, when he discusses the nature and properties of plumbago he writes that he himself had seen . . .