Abstract This chapter examines the along-arc variation in the crustal structure of the Himalayan Mountain Range. Using results from published seismological studies, plus large teleseismic body-wave and surface-wave datasets which we analyse, we illustrate the along-arc variation by comparing the crustal properties beneath four representative areas of the Himalayan Mountain Range: the Western Syntaxis, the Garhwal–Kumaon, the Eastern Nepal–Sikkim, and the Bhutan–Northeastern India regions. The Western Syntaxis and the Bhutan–Northeastern India regions have a complicated structure extending far out in front of the main Range, whereas the Central Himalaya appear to have a much simpler structure. The deformation is more distributed beneath the western and eastern ends of the Range, but in general, the crust gradually thickens from c. 40 km on the southern side of the Foreland Basin to c. 80 km beneath the Tethys Himalaya. While the gross crustal structure of much of the Himalaya is becoming better known, our understanding of the internal structure of the Himalaya is still sketchy. The detailed geometry of the Main Himalayan Thrust and the role of the secondary structures on the underthrusting Indian Plate are yet to be characterized satisfactorily.

Abstract Although there is some evidence for an Eocene monsoon, the most important intensification of rainfall appears to start at c. 24 Ma in the Early Miocene. Many palaeoceanographical proxies for monsoon intensity are linked to wind and do not correlate well with humidity of the continental climate over tectonic timescales. Rainfall peaked in the middle Miocene ( c. 15 Ma) with strong drying after 8 Ma. This timing does not correlate well with either initial uplift of the Tibetan Plateau or with the retreat of shallow seas from central Asia. The c. 24 Ma onset of strengthening rainfall is associated with the initiation of rapid erosion and cooling of Himalayan metamorphic rocks. The progressive detachment of the subducting Indian lithosphere from the eastern and western syntaxes at c. 25 Ma to the east-central Himalaya at c. 13–11 Ma would have produced corresponding propagation of rising Himalayan topography following release of the weight of the detached slab. Rapid uplift of the Himalayan barrier, blocking moisture-laden winds, is considered the most likely trigger for a stronger summer monsoon in South Asia, which in turn allowed faster erosion and exhumation of the Greater Himalaya after 24 Ma.