Abstract: Permian rugose corals underwent evolutionary episodes of assemblage changeover, biogeographical separation and extinction, which are closely related to geological events during this time. Two coral realms were recognized, the Tethyan Realm and the Cordilleran–Arctic–Uralian Realm. These are characterized by the families Kepingophyllidae and Waagenophyllidae during the Cisuralian, Waagenophyllidae in the Guadalupian and the subfamily Waagenophyllinae in the Lopingian, and the families Durhaminidae and Kleopatrinidae during the Cisuralian and major disappearance of colonial and dissepimented solitary rugose corals from the Guadalupian to the Lopingian, respectively. The development of these coral realms is controlled by the geographical barrier resulting from the Pangaea formation. According to the changes in the composition and diversity of the Permian rugose corals, a changeover event might have occurred at the end-Sakmarian and is characterized by the mixed Pennsylvanian and Permian faunas to typical Permian faunas, probably related to a global regression. In addition, three extinction events are present at the end-Kungurian, the end-Guadalupian and the end-Permian, which are respectively triggered by the northward movement of Pangaea, the Emeishan volcanic eruptions and subsequent global regression, and the global climate warming induced by the Siberian Traps eruption.

Abstract The sustainable development of minerals, which are non-renewable resources, is a major challenge in today’s world. In this regard the true definition of sustainability’ is a debating point in itself: can such a concept exist with respect to non-renewable resources? Perhaps the ideal sustainability model is one that minimizes negative environmental impact and maximizes benefits to society, the economy and regional/national development. Developed and near-developed economies rely for commodity supplies on developing countries where major mining operations are often a mainstay of the domestic economy. Limited environmental regulation and low wages lead to charges of exploitation. Also, large numbers of people have no alternative to living by informal, often dangerous, ‘artisanal’ mining. This Special Publication gives examples from developing countries at all scales of mineral extraction. The volume reviews environmental, economic, health and social problems and highlights the need to solve these before sustainability can be achieved. The better solutions require mutual understanding, through full involvement of all stakeholders, education, training and investment so that small-scale ansd artisinal mines can grow into well-managed operations. At larger scales, most major interantional mining companies have now inoproved their practices and are monitoring their progress, although there is no room for complacency in this rapidly changing area.