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NARROW
Format
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Journal
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Section
GeoRef Subject
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all geography including DSDP/ODP Sites and Legs
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Africa
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Central Africa
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Angola (1)
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Equatorial Guinea (1)
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East Africa
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Kenya (2)
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Lake Malawi (1)
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Malawi (1)
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East African Lakes
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Madagascar (1)
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North Africa
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Egypt
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Southern Africa
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West Africa
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Antarctica
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Asia
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Far East
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South Atlantic
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New Zealand (5)
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Canada
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Western Canada
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Caribbean region
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Hispaniola
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Caspian Basin (1)
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Central America
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Commonwealth of Independent States
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Europe
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Mediterranean region (1)
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Mexico (7)
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North America
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North American Cordillera
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Canadian Cordillera (1)
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Rocky Mountains
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North Slope (1)
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Northern Range (2)
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Oceania
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Melanesia
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Polynesia
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Hawaii (2)
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Pacific Coast (3)
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Pacific Ocean
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East Pacific
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Northeast Pacific
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Gulf of California (1)
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Panama Basin (1)
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North Pacific
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Northeast Pacific
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Gulf of California (1)
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Northwest Pacific
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Nankai Trough (1)
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-
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South Pacific
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Southwest Pacific
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Coral Sea
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Great Barrier Reef (1)
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Java Sea (1)
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-
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West Pacific
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Indonesian Seas
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Java Sea (1)
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Northwest Pacific
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Nankai Trough (1)
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Southwest Pacific
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Coral Sea
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Great Barrier Reef (1)
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Java Sea (1)
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Sunda Shelf (1)
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Pacific region
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Circum-Pacific region (1)
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Permian Basin (1)
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polar regions (1)
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Saint Lucia (2)
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San Andreas Fault (1)
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Santander Massif (5)
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South America
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Amazon Basin (1)
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Amazon River (4)
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Andes
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Eastern Cordillera (15)
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Sierra de Perija (8)
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Argentina
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Brazil
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Para Brazil (1)
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Chile
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Colombia
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Magdalena Colombia
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Magdalena Delta (5)
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Magdalena River (6)
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Magdalena Valley (16)
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Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (1)
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Ecuador (5)
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French Guiana (3)
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Guajira Peninsula (9)
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Guiana Shield (13)
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Guyana (11)
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Orinoco River (8)
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Orinoco River basin (5)
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Bocono Fault (3)
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Cojedes Venezuela
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Eastern Venezuela (20)
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Federal District Venezuela
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Guarico Venezuela (2)
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Lake Maracaibo (31)
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Maracaibo Basin (21)
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Nueva Esparta Venezuela
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Margarita Island (6)
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Orinoco Belt (1)
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Sucre Venezuela
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Araya Peninsula (2)
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Gulf of Cariaco (2)
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Paria Peninsula (4)
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Tachira Venezuela (2)
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Trujillo Venezuela (1)
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Venezuelan Andes (4)
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Margarita Island (6)
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Zulia Venezuela (4)
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-
-
South Island (1)
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Southern Alps (1)
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Southern Hemisphere (1)
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Southern Ocean
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United States
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elements, isotopes
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C-14 (6)
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chemical ratios (2)
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halogens
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hydrogen
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Nd-144/Nd-143 (6)
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S-33/S-32 (1)
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S-34/S-32 (3)
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Sm-147/Nd-144 (1)
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Sr-87/Sr-86 (8)
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metals
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actinides
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protactinium
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thorium
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Th-230 (2)
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U-234/Th-230 (1)
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U-238/Th-230 (1)
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uranium
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alkali metals
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potassium (1)
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rubidium
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alkaline earth metals
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barium
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Ba/Ca (2)
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beryllium
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calcium
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magnesium
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strontium
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Hf-177/Hf-176 (3)
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iron (8)
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manganese (3)
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neodymium
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vanadium (3)
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zirconium (1)
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nitrogen (3)
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Rn-222 (1)
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oxygen
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O-18/O-16 (21)
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sulfur
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S-34/S-32 (3)
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fossils
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Reptilia
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cyanobacteria (1)
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Invertebrata
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Brachiopoda
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Bryozoa
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Cnidaria
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Echinodermata
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Cephalopoda
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Gastropoda
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Turritellidae
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Porifera
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Hexactinellida (1)
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Protista
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Foraminifera
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Fusulinina
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Fusulinidae (3)
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Rotaliina
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Buliminacea
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Uvigerinidae
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Uvigerina (2)
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Cassidulinacea
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Anomalinidae
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Cibicidoides (1)
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Globocassidulina
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Globocassidulina subglobosa (1)
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Globigerinacea
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Globigerinidae
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Globigerina
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Globigerina bulloides (2)
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Globigerinoides
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Globigerinoides ruber (3)
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Globigerinoides sacculifer (1)
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Orbulina
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Orbulina universa (2)
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Globorotaliidae
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Globorotalia
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Globorotalia menardii (1)
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Globotruncanidae
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Globotruncana (1)
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Hantkenina (2)
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Neogloboquadrina
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Neogloboquadrina pachyderma (1)
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Orbitoidacea
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Amphistegina (1)
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Lepidocyclina (1)
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Rotaliacea
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Elphidium (1)
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Textulariina
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Lituolacea
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Orbitolinidae
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Orbitolina (2)
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Radiolaria
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Spumellina (2)
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Silicoflagellata (1)
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Vermes
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Annelida (1)
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microfossils
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Fusulinina
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Fusulinidae (3)
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palynomorphs
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Dinoflagellata (4)
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miospores
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pollen (14)
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Plantae
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algae
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calcareous algae (1)
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Chlorophyta
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Botryococcus (2)
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diatoms (1)
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nannofossils
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Sphenolithus (1)
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Bryophyta (1)
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Pteridophyta
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Filicopsida
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Archaeopteris (1)
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Spermatophyta
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Angiospermae
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Dicotyledoneae
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Monocotyledoneae
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Gramineae (1)
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Palmae (1)
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thallophytes (6)
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geochronology methods
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(U-Th)/He (2)
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Ar/Ar (6)
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fission-track dating (11)
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uranium disequilibrium (3)
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geologic age
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Cenozoic
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Quaternary
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Pleistocene
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Key Largo Limestone (1)
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middle Pleistocene (1)
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upper Pleistocene
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Weichselian
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upper Weichselian
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Younger Dryas (2)
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upper Quaternary (5)
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Tertiary
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Carapita Formation (2)
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middle Tertiary (1)
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Neogene
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Miocene
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Honda Group (1)
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lower Miocene
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Aquitanian (1)
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middle Miocene (8)
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Oficina Formation (12)
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upper Miocene (13)
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Pliocene
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Bowden Formation (1)
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lower Pliocene (3)
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upper Pliocene (3)
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upper Neogene (1)
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Paleogene
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Eocene
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lower Eocene
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Misoa Formation (6)
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middle Eocene
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Mirador Formation (4)
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upper Eocene (7)
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Oligocene
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lower Oligocene (2)
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Paleocene
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lower Paleocene
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Danian (1)
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K-T boundary (4)
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middle Paleocene (1)
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upper Paleocene (1)
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-
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Pirabas Formation (1)
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upper Cenozoic (2)
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Laurentide ice sheet (1)
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Mesozoic
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Cretaceous
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Comanchean
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Travis Peak Formation (1)
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Lower Cretaceous
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Albian (4)
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Aptian (1)
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Barremian (1)
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Hauterivian (2)
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Travis Peak Formation (1)
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Valanginian (1)
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Middle Cretaceous (1)
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Upper Cretaceous
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Cenomanian (2)
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Coniacian (1)
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Ferron Sandstone Member (1)
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K-T boundary (4)
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La Luna Formation (8)
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Maestrichtian (4)
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Senonian (4)
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Turonian (1)
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Franciscan Complex (1)
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Jurassic
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Middle Jurassic
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Bajocian
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Brent Group (1)
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Bathonian (1)
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Upper Jurassic
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Kimmeridgian (1)
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Smackover Formation (1)
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Statfjord Formation (1)
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Triassic
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Upper Triassic (1)
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Paleozoic
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Bird Spring Formation (1)
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Carboniferous
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Pennsylvanian
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Mansfield Formation (1)
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Devonian
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Upper Devonian (1)
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Ordovician
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Lower Ordovician
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Tremadocian (1)
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Permian
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Guadalupian (1)
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Lower Permian
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Silurian
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Lower Silurian
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Llandovery (1)
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upper Paleozoic (2)
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Precambrian
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Archean (1)
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Stillwater Complex (1)
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upper Precambrian
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Proterozoic
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Algonkian
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Baraboo Quartzite (1)
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Neoproterozoic (2)
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Paleoproterozoic (5)
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igneous rocks
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igneous rocks
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kimberlite (7)
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plutonic rocks
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diabase (1)
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tonalite (2)
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gabbros (2)
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granodiorites (1)
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volcanic rocks
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andesites (6)
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basalts
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alkali basalts
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ocean-island basalts (1)
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tholeiite (2)
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tholeiitic basalt (1)
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basanite
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ankaramite (1)
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dacites (4)
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glasses
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pyroclastics
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ignimbrite (1)
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scoria (2)
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tuff (3)
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rhyodacites (1)
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rhyolites (3)
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ophiolite (2)
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volcanic ash (2)
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metamorphic rocks
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metamorphic rocks
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amphibolites
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orthoamphibolite (1)
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eclogite (6)
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gneisses (3)
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metasedimentary rocks
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metasomatic rocks
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metavolcanic rocks (3)
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phyllites (2)
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schists
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greenschist (1)
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greenstone (1)
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ophiolite (2)
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turbidite (11)
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minerals
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alloys (1)
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carbonates
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calcite (8)
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dolomite (9)
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magnesian calcite (2)
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halides
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chlorides
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halite (1)
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minerals (13)
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native elements
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diamond (9)
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oxides
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rutile (1)
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spinel (1)
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spinel group (1)
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titanium oxides (1)
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phosphates
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apatite (9)
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silicates
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chain silicates
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amphibole group
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clinoamphibole
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actinolite (1)
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glaucophane (2)
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hornblende (1)
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tschermakite (1)
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-
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pyroxene group
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clinopyroxene
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augite (1)
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fassaite (1)
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jadeite (1)
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orthopyroxene
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enstatite (2)
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framework silicates
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feldspar group
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plagioclase (1)
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silica minerals
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coesite (2)
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quartz (4)
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orthosilicates
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nesosilicates
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garnet group
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pyrope (3)
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olivine group
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olivine (4)
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zircon group
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zircon (18)
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sorosilicates
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epidote group
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epidote (1)
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lawsonite (2)
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pumpellyite group
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pumpellyite (1)
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ring silicates
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tourmaline group (1)
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sheet silicates
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chlorite group
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chlorite (1)
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clay minerals
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kaolinite (4)
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smectite (1)
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vermiculite (1)
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illite (4)
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mica group
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muscovite (1)
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phlogopite (1)
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serpentine group
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antigorite (2)
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sulfates
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alunite (1)
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gypsum (2)
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sulfides
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pyrite (5)
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Primary terms
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absolute age (38)
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academic institutions (1)
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Africa
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Antarctica
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Asia
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Far East
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associations (2)
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Atlantic Ocean
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bibliography (8)
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Canada
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carbon
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organic carbon (1)
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Caribbean region
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Lesser Antilles
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Bahamas (2)
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Grand Cayman Island (1)
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catalogs (2)
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Cenozoic
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Quaternary
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Holocene
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upper Holocene (4)
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Pleistocene
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Key Largo Limestone (1)
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lower Pleistocene
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Gelasian (1)
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middle Pleistocene (1)
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upper Pleistocene
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Weichselian
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upper Weichselian
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Younger Dryas (2)
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upper Quaternary (5)
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Tertiary
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Carapita Formation (2)
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middle Tertiary (1)
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Neogene
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Miocene
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Honda Group (1)
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lower Miocene
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Aquitanian (1)
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middle Miocene (8)
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Oficina Formation (12)
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upper Miocene (13)
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Pliocene
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Bowden Formation (1)
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lower Pliocene (3)
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upper Pliocene (3)
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upper Neogene (1)
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Paleogene
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Eocene
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lower Eocene
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Misoa Formation (6)
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middle Eocene
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Lutetian (1)
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Mirador Formation (4)
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upper Eocene (7)
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Oligocene
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Paleocene
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lower Paleocene
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Danian (1)
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middle Paleocene (1)
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Pirabas Formation (1)
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chemical analysis (3)
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Chordata
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Osteichthyes
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Tetrapoda
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continental drift (5)
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data processing (16)
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Deep Sea Drilling Project
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IPOD
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Leg 77
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DSDP Site 536 (1)
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DSDP Site 540 (1)
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Leg 79
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DSDP Site 546 (1)
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Leg 10
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DSDP Site 95 (1)
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Leg 11
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DSDP Site 100 (1)
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DSDP Site 105 (2)
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Leg 14
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DSDP Site 137 (1)
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Leg 15
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DSDP Site 146 (1)
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Leg 16
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Leg 17
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DSDP Site 165 (1)
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DSDP Site 169 (1)
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Leg 18
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DSDP Site 172 (1)
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Leg 20
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DSDP Site 196 (1)
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Leg 22
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DSDP Site 212 (1)
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Leg 23
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DSDP Site 221 (1)
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Leg 25
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DSDP Site 239 (1)
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Leg 34
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DSDP Site 319 (1)
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Leg 37
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DSDP Site 332 (1)
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Leg 38
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DSDP Site 336 (1)
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GeoRef Categories
Era and Period
Epoch and Age
Book Series
Date
Availability
Integration of FWI-derived reflectivity in seismic interpretation Available to Purchase
The role of mobile muds in basin form and fill in the tectonic and sedimentologically complex region of the Southeastern Margin of the Caribbean Plate, Trinidad and Tobago, West Indies Available to Purchase
The Cibarco anticline of the northernmost San Jacinto fold belt: Possible influence of mud diapirism on the Neogene to the recent evolution of the structure where the first oil and gas wells were drilled in Colombia Available to Purchase
Tectonostratigraphic evolution of a marginal basin during the transition from arc collision to subduction: The case of the northern Pacific forearc of Colombia Available to Purchase
Biostratigraphic analysis of a Late Pleistocene to Holocene section from Punta Pescador, eastern Venezuela Available to Purchase
Colombian Seismic Monitoring Using Advanced Machine‐Learning Algorithms Available to Purchase
Background Seismic Noise Levels among the Caribbean Network and the Role of Station Proximity to Coastline Available to Purchase
Magmatic and rare Eocene to Precambrian xenocrystic zircons in Dominica reveal discrete crystallization episodes and multiple sediment sources Available to Purchase
An overview of the eruption of La Soufrière Volcano, St Vincent 2020–21 Open Access
Abstract This paper provides an overview of the eruption of La Soufrière Volcano on the island of St Vincent which occurred between 27 December 2020 and 22 April 2022. It sets the stage for the 17 papers included in this Special Publication that showcase the initial scientific findings arising from analysis of the crisis. Here we present a chronology of the eruption and discuss the key findings from these papers while underscoring the areas for which further research is needed. The detailed account of the eruption offers several lessons for volcanic crisis management and provides insights into the most effective communication process through this type of crisis. It highlights the need for and benefits of planning and preparedness activities prior to an eruption as well as of long-term engagement with disaster management officials and at-risk communities. The value of partnerships both within the island and with external collaborators was shown to be critical as was the use of a multiparametric dataset to assess the course of the eruption. We contend that the papers contained in this publication provide key insights into the mechanisms by which volcanic eruptions can impact populations at risk. The suite of analyses and data have generated a canonical dataset that can provide the framework for new advances in understanding the causes and consequences of varying eruptions worldwide.
Growth and evolution of the lava dome and coulée during the 2020–21 eruption of La Soufrière, St Vincent Open Access
Abstract The 2020–21 eruption of La Soufrière, St Vincent consisted of two distinct phases. The initial, effusive phase was characterized by the extrusion of a small lava dome inside the 1.5 km wide Summit Crater, and was followed by a violent explosive phase. Growth and evolution of the lava dome was monitored by visual observations and photogrammetry using imagery acquired from fixed-wing aircraft, helicopters and consumer-grade unmanned aerial vehicles. Additional monitoring was provided by satellite multispectral and radar imagery. Following the emergence of lava at the surface on 27 December 2020, volume and growth rate calculations showed the extrusion occurred at a steady rate of c . 1.8 m 3 s −1 and c . 16–19 × 10 6 m 3 of lava was extruded. The initial near-perfect hemispherical dome transitioned into a dome with a more elliptical footprint, eventually, evolving into a coulée-like feature with two lobes. The dome was destroyed by the onset of explosive activity on 9 April 2021.
Analysis of magma flux and eruption intensity during the 2021 explosive activity at La Soufrière, St Vincent, West Indies Open Access
Abstract Real-time Seismic Amplitude Measurement signals and eruption cloud height measurements were used to estimate peak intensities of 40 explosive events during the 8–22 April 2021 activity of La Soufrière volcano. We estimated magma supply rates and erupted volumes in each explosion, characterized uncertainty by stochastic modelling and identified four eruptive stages. Stage 1 included an intense period of 9.5 hours with 11 explosive events with peak eruption intensity between 2000 and 4000 m 3 s −1 and magma supply rate reaching 828 m 3 s −1 . Twelve high-intensity explosions (c. 4000 m 3 s −1) occurred in Stage 2 with average magma supply rate of 251 m 3 s −1 . Stage 3 involved both declining intensity and magma supply rate and lengthening repose periods between explosions. Stage 4 involved three much weaker explosions. The total erupted volume of magma is estimated at 38.5 × 10 6 m 3 (90% credible interval: [22.0 .. 61.9] × 10 6 m 3) consistent with independent estimates from analysis of tephra deposits and volcano subsidence sourced at c. 6 km depth. The 150-fold increase in magma supply rate, from the preceding effusive phase to Stage 1 of the explosive phase, is attributed to replacement of very high-viscosity degassed magma occupying the shallow conduit system with new, lower-viscosity, volatile-rich magma from the magma chamber.
Explosive sequence of La Soufrière, St Vincent, April 2021: insights into drivers and consequences via eruptive products Open Access
Abstract This paper forensically reconstructs the timings, impacts and processes that drove the sequence of explosive eruptions of La Soufrière, St Vincent in April 2021 using a combination of field-based stratigraphy and textural dissection of the deposit character together with contemporary visual observations. Explosive activity on 9 April and early on 10 April involved destruction of almost all of the 2020/2021 lava dome, c. 60% of the 1979 dome and formation of a 600 m diameter crater by 2pm UTC on 10 April. Following the initial explosion, plumes rose to altitudes of c. 15 km and pyroclastic density currents (PDCs), formed by column collapse, first occurred on 10 April, only after >24 h of explosive activity. Dense PDCs reached the sea only in the Larikai and Roseau valleys, and dilute PDCs were restricted to within 2.5 km of the Summit Crater rim. The tephra fallout deposits are stratified, composed of numerous layers of both lapilli-rich and ash-rich layers, which we have grouped into at least 7 units, based on their common characteristics (Units 1 to 7). Volume estimates, using a range of techniques to constrain uncertainties, indicate that the bulk volume of tephra (fallout and PDC) is 1.19 × 10 8 m 3 ± 20% making this a VEI 4 eruption.
Estimation of eruption source parameters for the 2021 La Soufrière eruption (St Vincent): implications for quantification of eruption magnitude on volcanic islands Open Access
Abstract Eruption source parameters (ESPs) used to characterize explosive eruptions are estimated from tephra deposit data using different models (statistical or numerical) and inversion approaches. The ESPs thus derived are subject to substantial uncertainties when the bulk of the tephra deposit, including information about its full spatial extent and spatial variation in grain-size distribution is missing due to geographical and environmental conditions. We use an advection–diffusion model coupled with a Bayesian inversion and uncertainty quantification algorithm to investigate how ESPs can be robustly estimated given such conditions. The 2021 eruption of La Soufrière volcano (St Vincent and the Grenadines) is our case study. An inversion is conducted for the first two explosive phases of this eruption (U1 and U2). We estimate: an erupted mass of 3.3 × 10 10 ± 1 × 10 10 kg for U1 and 3.1 × 10 10 ± 1.9 × 10 9 kg for U2, with an average particles release height of c. 13.5 km a.s.l. ±0.5 km for both phases. Given the efficiency of the proposed approach and the plausibility of the stochastic inversion results, we recommend this procedure for estimating ESPs for explosive eruptions for which the bulk of the deposit is missing or is inaccessible.
Experimental insight into basaltic andesite lava dome oxidation textures at La Soufrière, St Vincent Open Access
Abstract Petrological analysis of the 2020–21 La Soufrière lava dome reveals ubiquitous oxidation textures. Comparison of the natural dome rock to subsequent explosive scoria phases highlights the lack of any oxidation features in the latter, indicating that oxidation processes affected only the dome-forming magma, either during pre-eruptive storage or upon emplacement. To investigate the causes of oxidation we present a series of one-atmosphere experiments, using fresh natural basaltic andesite scoria as a starting material. Experiments were performed at 900 and 1020°C and at oxygen fugacities between NNO − 2 and air. Experimental results show that iron oxide nanolites nucleate on the rims of pyroxene microlites and phenocrysts under all experimental conditions except at NNO − 2. Orthopyroxene phenocrysts become unstable at 1020°C, at and above NNO + 2. Olivine symplectites form in all experiments at and above NNO. Titanomagnetite co-exsolves titanohematite and an Mg–Fe–Al spinel (pleonaste–magnesioferrite) at and above NNO + 2. Well-developed Mg–Fe–Al spinel trellis exsolution lamellae in titanomagnetite phenocrysts, as seen in the dome, only form in the presence of air at 900°C. The combination of textures and compositions observed in the natural dome indicates that oxidation of the dome magma occurred during emplacement at Earth's surface, with air percolating through the dome at temperatures ≤900°C.
Analysis of magma rheology from lava spreading and explosive activity during the 2020–21 eruption of La Soufrière, St Vincent, with implications for eruption dynamics Open Access
Abstract We apply dynamical models to estimate the rheological properties of magma and lava during the 2021–22 eruption of La Soufrière Volcano, St Vincent. Analysis of the emplacement of a lava coulée gives viscosities in the range 0.94 × 10 10 Pa s to 5.97 × 10 10 Pa s. A static Bingham model gives a yield strength of 4.1 × 10 5 Pa. A dynamical model of conduit flow during the explosive phase of the eruption gives a viscosity range from 1.2 × 10 7 to 2.3 × 10 9 Pa s. A petrological model of magma viscosity in the source region falls in the range 10 2 to 10 3 Pa s. The very high viscosity of the lava is attributed to the presence of a remnant degassed and partially crystallized magma from previous eruptions that occupied the shallow conduit–vent system prior to onset of the 2021 explosive eruptions. Gas-rich magma pushed this degassed remnant magma out over a three-month period at a steady rate of about 1.2 m 3 s −1 and the explosive phase began when volatile-rich and much lower viscosity magma reached the surface.
Petrology of the 2020–21 effusive to explosive eruption of La Soufrière Volcano, St Vincent: insights into plumbing system architecture and magma assembly mechanism Open Access
Abstract The 2020–21 eruption of La Soufrière, St Vincent began with extrusion of a viscous lava dome, which was destroyed upon transition to a major explosive phase. Here we present petrological data to reconstruct the processes leading up to these events. Bulk-rock SiO 2 contents range from 52.8 to 55.4 wt%, classifying the lava and the subsequent scoria as basaltic andesite, the latter being slightly more mafic. Macrocrystal chemistry and modes (plag–cpx–opx–tmt–ol) and crystallinity (45–50 vol%) are largely identical for both phases of the eruption. Pyroxenes are homogenous and precipitated mostly from andesitic melts. Conversely, plagioclase shows strong normal zonation resulting from magma ascent and stalling at multiple crustal levels. Clinopyroxene thermobarometry reveals that crystallization predominantly took place between 8 and 13 km depth at temperatures of 997 − 35 + 18 ∘ C . A lack of evidence for mafic recharge and changes in volatile content and the omnipresence of xenoliths, suggests pre-eruptive destabilization of an andesitic–dacitic melt pocket that disrupted and entrained antecedent mush. Olivine diffusion profiles show that this interaction preceded the onset of eruption. Low dissolved sulfur contents (≤270 ppm S) place constraints on the total SO 2 gas release. Melt–mush disruption appears to be a dominant driver of eruptions at La Soufrière. Supplementary material: Supplementary figures and tables, as well as electronic data tables, are available at https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.c.6484877
Petrology of the explosive deposits from the April 2021 eruption of La Soufrière volcano, St Vincent: a time-series analysis of microlites Open Access
Abstract After more than three months of lava dome extrusion, La Soufrière (St Vincent) transitioned to a series of explosive eruptions in April 2021. Here we present a time-series petrologic analysis of the phenocryst and microlite populations during the first c. 48 h of explosivity to constrain ascent conditions and processes that drove changes in behaviour. Primary eruptive products were crystal-rich (45–50 vol%) basaltic andesites with similar phenocryst phase assemblages and compositions. The change in eruptive style is consistent with overpressurization as a consequence of second boiling from anhydrous microlite crystallization. The microlites display variation between the explosive phases, with two populations: (1) ‘inherited’ − normally zoned high-An plagioclase (>An 70) + olivine (Fo 62–79) + clinopyroxene + titanomagnetite, inferred to have crystallized at depths >15 km and high water pressures; (2) ‘juvenile’ − unzoned plagioclase (An 45–65) + clinopyroxene + orthopyroxene + intermediate pyroxene (Wo 12–38) + titanomagnetite, inferred to have crystallized upon ascent due to decompression and degassing. Scoria from the first explosions featured extensive groundmass crystallization and a significant ‘inherited’ microlite population. Later explosions had a more abundant ‘juvenile’ microlite population and lower crystallinity, consistent with more rapid ascent from depth, initiated by decompression following initial blasts and destruction of the lava dome.
SO 2 emissions during the 2021 eruption of La Soufrière, St Vincent, revealed with back-trajectory analysis of TROPOMI imagery Open Access
Abstract Determining SO 2 emission time-series from explosive eruptions can provide important insights into the driving magmatic processes, however accurate measurements are difficult to collect. Satellite-based platforms provide SO 2 imagery, however translating this to the altitude- and time-resolved emission history required to unravel volcanic processes is a major challenge. This means SO 2 emission time-series are rarely quantified for major eruptions, producing a gap in our understanding of explosive volcanism. Here, we combine SO 2 imagery collected by the TROPOspheric Monitoring Instrument (TROPOMI) with PlumeTraj, a back-trajectory analysis toolkit, to reconstruct the SO 2 emission prior to, and during, the explosive eruption of La Soufrière volcano, St Vincent, in April 2021. Precursory SO 2 emissions were quantified the day before the eruption, with emission rates in agreement with ground-based measurements. We estimate initial magma sulfur contents by comparing the measured SO 2 emissions with erupted magma volumes, finding that the initial explosion was sulfur poor (730 ppm S) compared to the main eruption phase (up to 3400 ppm S). This suggests that the initial explosion cleared old, previously degassed magma resident in the shallow plumbing system, followed by the eruption of the main, mostly un-degassed magma source.
Impacts and prospective hazard analysis of rainfall-triggered lahars on St Vincent 2021–22 Open Access
Abstract Lahars are energetic flows of loosely consolidated volcanic debris and water, which have occurred frequently after rainfall events on St Vincent in the Eastern Caribbean since the April 2021 explosive phase of the 2020–21 eruption of La Soufrière volcano. Using scientific observations and information from social media, we have constructed a detailed timeline of the 25 lahar events that occurred during 2021, and summarized lahar impacts and losses. 20 mm daily rainfall on a river catchment is (and remains) sufficient to result in a lahar. We used this threshold, with field estimates of lahar volumes, to conduct both an island-wide assessment of potentially impacted locations using the Laharz model, and a detailed reconstruction of one lahar event, using the dynamic model LaharFlow. A simplified catchment hydrology approach with runoff ratios typical for the Caribbean showed good agreement with observations of flow properties near the coast. Lahars will continue to be an important hazard in St Vincent into the future, and our modelling approach can assess future lahar impacts and provide early warnings. Social media provided key information about lahars and impacts, and allowed communities to alert each other. Future hazard mitigation should strengthen links between communities and with national risk management.
La Soufrière volcano, St Vincent, eruption 2020–21: assessing unrest and eruptive states from limited volcano-seismic data Open Access
Abstract Following a month of unrest in June–July 2019 and 3 months of effusive activity from late December 2020 to March 2021, La Soufrière volcano, St Vincent, transitioned to a 2-week period of explosions on 9 April 2021. During initial unrest, there was one working seismograph station on the volcano, providing the only information for tracking fluctuations in seismicity. Subsequently, full capability for locating volcanic earthquakes was achieved on 27 January 2021. Because events prior to this did not have reliable locations, unconventional data tracking approaches were adopted for assessing unrest evolution. Holistic inferences, suggested by combining these novel analyses with decades of knowledge of Lesser Antilles volcanoes, provided punctual evidential support for assessing the possibility that unrest could culminate in explosive activity. However, this case history is not offered as a paradigm for minimalist seismic monitoring at active volcanoes, notwithstanding that information gains were possible. This said, evaluations of seismic moment release, using event duration magnitudes as proxies for moment magnitudes, allowed the magma volume intruded or activated in the volcano to be estimated: 68 ± 14 × 10 6 m 3 dense rock equivalent (DRE) magma; this is a value remarkably similar to a geological estimate of total erupted volume (71 ± 14 × 10 6 m 3 DRE), with matching uncertainties.