Bear Lake is a large alkaline lake on a high plateau on the Utah-Idaho border. The Bear River was partly diverted into the lake in the early twentieth century so that Bear Lake could serve as a reservoir to supply water for hydropower and irrigation downstream, which continues today. The northern Rocky Mountain region is within the belt of the strongest of the westerly winds that transport moisture during the winter and spring over coastal mountain ranges and into the Great Basin and Rocky Mountains. As a result of this dominant winter precipitation pattern, most of the water entering the lake is from snowmelt, but with net evaporation. The dominant solutes in the lake water are Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ , and HCO 3 2‒ , derived from Paleozoic carbonate rocks in the Bear River Range west of the lake. The lake is saturated with calcite, aragonite, and dolomite at all depths, and produces vast amounts of carbonate minerals. The chemistry of the lake has changed considerably over the past 100 years as a result of the diversion of Bear River. The net effect of the diversion was to dilute the lake water, especially the Mg 2+ concentration. Bear Lake is oligotrophic and coprecipitation of phosphate with CaCO 3 helps to keep productivity low. However, algal growth is colimited by nitrogen availability. Phytoplankton densities are low, with a mean summer chlorophyll a concentration of 0.4 mg L ‒1 . Phytoplankton are dominated by diatoms, but they have not been studied extensively (but see Moser and Kimball, this volume). Zooplankton densities usually are low (<10 L ‒1) and highly seasonal, dominated by calanoid copepods and cladocera. Benthic invertebrate densities are extremely low; chironomid larvae are dominant at depths <30 m, and are partially replaced with ostracodes and oligochaetes in deeper water. The ostracode species in water depths >10 m are all endemic. Bear Lake has 13 species of fish, four of which are endemic.

Bear Lake, on the Idaho-Utah border, lies in a fault-bounded valley through which the Bear River flows en route to the Great Salt Lake. Surficial deposits in the Bear Lake drainage basin provide a geologic context for interpretation of cores from Bear Lake deposits. In addition to groundwater discharge, Bear Lake received water and sediment from its own small drainage basin and sometimes from the Bear River and its glaciated headwaters. The lake basin interacts with the river in complex ways that are modulated by climatically induced lake-level changes, by the distribution of active Quaternary faults, and by the migration of the river across its fluvial fan north of the present lake. The upper Bear River flows northward for ~150 km from its headwaters in the northwestern Uinta Mountains, generally following the strike of regional Laramide and late Cenozoic structures. These structures likely also control the flow paths of groundwater that feeds Bear Lake, and groundwater-fed streams are the largest source of water when the lake is isolated from the Bear River. The present configuration of the Bear River with respect to Bear Lake Valley may not have been established until the late Pliocene. The absence of Uinta Range–derived quartzites in fluvial gravel on the crest of the Bear Lake Plateau east of Bear Lake suggests that the present headwaters were not part of the drainage basin in the late Tertiary. Newly mapped glacial deposits in the Bear River Range west of Bear Lake indicate several advances of valley glaciers that were probably coeval with glaciations in the Uinta Mountains. Much of the meltwater from these glaciers may have reached Bear Lake via ground-water pathways through infiltration in the karst terrain of the Bear River Range. At times during the Pleistocene, the Bear River flowed into Bear Lake and water level rose to the valley threshold at Nounan narrows. This threshold has been modified by aggradation, downcutting, and tectonics. Maximum lake levels have decreased from as high as 1830 m to 1806 m above sea level since the early Pleistocene due to episodic downcutting by the Bear River. The oldest exposed lacustrine sediments in Bear Lake Valley are probably of Pliocene age. Several high-lake phases during the early and middle Pleistocene were separated by episodes of fluvial incision. Threshold incision was not constant, however, because lake highstands of as much as 8 m above bedrock threshold level resulted from aggradation and possibly landsliding at least twice during the late-middle and late Pleistocene. Abandoned stream channels within the low-lying, fault-bounded region between Bear Lake and the modern Bear River show that Bear River progressively shifted northward during the Holocene. Several factors including faulting, location of the fluvial fan, and channel migration across the fluvial fan probably interacted to produce these changes in channel position. Late Quaternary slip rates on the east Bear Lake fault zone are estimated by using the water-level history of Bear Lake, assuming little or no displacement on dated deposits on the west side of the valley. Uplifted lacustrine deposits representing Pliocene to middle Pleistocene highstands of Bear Lake on the footwall block of the east Bear Lake fault zone provide dramatic evidence of long-term slip. Slip rates during the late Pleistocene increased from north to south along the east Bear Lake fault zone, consistent with the tectonic geomorphology. In addition, slip rates on the southern section of the fault zone have apparently decreased over the past 50 k.y.

Bear Lake sediments were predominantly aragonite for most of the Holocene, reflecting a hydrologically closed lake fed by groundwater and small streams. During the late Pleistocene, the Bear River flowed into Bear Lake and the lake waters spilled back into the Bear River drainage. At that time, sediment deposition was dominated by siliciclastic sediment and calcite. Lake-level fluctuation during the Holocene and late Pleistocene produced three types of aragonite deposits in the central lake area that are differentiated primarily by grain size, sorting, and diatom assemblage. Lake- margin deposits during this period consisted of sandy deposits including well-developed shoreface deposits on margins adjacent to relatively steep gradient lake floors and thin, graded shell gravel on margins adjacent to very low gradient lakefloor areas. Throughout the period of aragonite deposition, episodic drops in lake level resulted in erosion of shallow-water deposits, which were redeposited into the deeper lake. These sediment-focusing episodes are recognized by mixing of different mineralogies and crystal habits and mixing of a range of diatom fauna into poorly sorted mud layers. Lake-level drops are also indicated by erosional gaps in the shallow-water records and the occurrence of shoreline deposits in areas now covered by as much as 30 m of water. Calcite precipitation occurred for a short interval of time during the Holocene in response to an influx of Bear River water ca. 8 ka. The Pleistocene sedimentary record of Bear Lake until ca. 18 ka is dominated by siliciclastic glacial flour derived from glaciers in the Uinta Mountains. The Bear Lake deep-water siliciclastic deposits are thoroughly bioturbated, whereas shallow-water deposits transitional to deltas in the northern part of the basin are upward-coarsening sequences of laminated mud, silt, and sand. A major drop in lake level occurred ca. 18 ka, resulting in subaerial exposure of the lake floor in areas now covered by over 40 m of water. The subaerial surfaces are indicated by root casts and gypsum-rich soil features. Bear Lake remained at this low state with a minor transgression until ca. 15 ka. A new influx of Bear River water produced a major lake transgression and deposited a thin calcite deposit. Bear Lake quickly dropped to a shallow-water state, accumulating a mixture of calcite and siliciclastic sediment that contains at least two intervals of root-disrupted horizons indicating lake-level drops to more than 40 m below the modern highstand. About 11,500 yr B.P., the lake level rose again through an influx of Bear River water producing another thin calcite layer. The Bear River ceased to flow into the basin and the lake salinity increased, resulting in the aragonite deposition that persisted until modern human activity. The climatic record of Bear Lake sediment is difficult to ascertain by using standard chemical and biological techniques because of variations in the inflow hydrology and the significant amount of erosion and redeposition of chemical and biological sediment components.

Major-ion chemistry, strontium isotope ratios (87 Sr/ 86 Sr), stable isotope ratios (δ 18 O, δ 2 H), and tritium were analyzed for water samples from the southern Bear Lake Valley, Utah and Idaho, to characterize the types and distribution of groundwater sources and their relation to Bear Lake’s pre-diversion chemistry. Four ground-water types were identified: (1) Ca-Mg-HCO 3 water with 87 Sr/ 86 Sr values of ~0.71050 and modern tritium concentrations was found in the mountainous carbonate terrain of the Bear River Range. Magnesium (Mg) and bicarbonate (HCO 3) concentrations at Swan Creek Spring are discharge dependent and result from differential carbonate bedrock dissolution within the Bear River Range. (2) Cl-rich groundwater with elevated barium and strontium concentrations and 87 Sr/ 86 Sr values between 0.71021 and 0.71322 was found in the southwestern part of the valley. This groundwater discharges at several small, fault-controlled springs along the margin of the lake and contains solutes derived from the Wasatch Formation. (3) SO 4 -rich groundwater with 87 Sr/ 86 Sr values of ~0.70865, and lacking detectable tritium, discharges from two springs in the northeast quadrant of the study area and along the East Bear Lake fault. (4) Ca-Mg-HCO 3 -SO 4 -Cl water with 87 Sr/ 86 Sr values of ~0.71060 and sub-modern tritium concentrations discharges from several small springs emanating from the Wasatch Formation on the Bear Lake Plateau. The δ 18 O and δ 2 H values from springs and streams discharging in the Bear River Range fall along the Global Meteoric Water Line (GMWL), but are more negative at the southern end of the valley and at lower elevations. The δ 18 O and δ 2 H values from springs discharging on the Bear Lake Plateau plot on an evaporation line slightly below the GMWL. Stable isotope data suggest that precipitation falling in Bear Lake Valley is affected by orographic effects as storms pass over the Bear River Range, and by evaporation prior to recharging the Bear Lake Plateau aquifers. Approximately 99% of the solutes constituting Bear Lake’s pre-diversion chemistry were derived from stream discharge and shallow groundwater sources located within the Bear River Range. Lake-marginal springs exposed during the recent low lake levels and springs and streams draining the Bear Lake Plateau did not contribute significantly to the pre-diversion chemistry of Bear Lake.

Radiocarbon analyses of pollen, ostracodes, and total organic carbon (TOC) provide a reliable chronology for the sediments deposited in Bear Lake over the past 30,000 years. The differences in apparent age between TOC, pollen, and carbonate fractions are consistent and in accord with the origins of these fractions. Comparisons among different fractions indicate that pollen sample ages are the most reliable, at least for the past 15,000 years. The post-glacial radiocarbon data also agree with ages independently estimated from aspartic acid racemization in ostracodes. Ages in the red, siliclastic unit, inferred to be of last glacial age, appear to be several thousand years too old, probably because of a high proportion of reworked, refractory organic carbon in the pollen samples. Age-depth models for five piston cores and the Bear Lake drill core (BL00-1) were constructed by using two methods: quadratic equations and smooth cubic-spline fits. The two types of age models differ only in detail for individual cores, and each approach has its own advantages. Specific lithological horizons were dated in several cores and correlated among them, producing robust average ages for these horizons. The age of the correlated horizons in the red, siliclastic unit can be estimated from the age model for BL00-1, which is controlled by ages above and below the red, siliclastic unit. These ages were then transferred to the correlative horizons in the shorter piston cores, providing control for the sections of the age models in those cores in the red, siliclastic unit. These age models are the backbone for reconstructions of past environmental conditions in Bear Lake. In general, sedimentation rates in Bear Lake have been quite uniform, mostly between 0.3 and 0.8 mm yr ‒1 in the Holocene, and close to 0.5 mm yr ‒1 for the longer sedimentary record in the drill core from the deepest part of the lake.

Sediments deposited over the past 220,000 years in Bear Lake, Utah and Idaho, are predominantly calcareous silty clay, with calcite as the dominant carbonate mineral. The abundance of siliciclastic sediment indicates that the Bear River usually was connected to Bear Lake. However, three marl intervals containing more than 50% CaCO 3 were deposited during the Holocene and the last two interglacial intervals, equivalent to marine oxygen isotope stages (MIS) 5 and 7, indicating times when the Bear River was not connected to the lake. Aragonite is the dominant mineral in two of these three high-carbonate intervals. The high-carbonate, aragonitic intervals coincide with warm interglacial continental climates and warm Pacific sea-surface temperatures. Aragonite also is the dominant mineral in a carbonate-cemented microbialite mound that formed in the southwestern part of the lake over the last several thousand years. The history of carbonate sedimentation in Bear Lake is documented through the study of isotopic ratios of oxygen, carbon, and strontium, organic carbon content, CaCO 3 content, X-ray diffraction mineralogy, and HCl-leach chemistry on samples from sediment traps, gravity cores, piston cores, drill cores, and microbialites. Sediment-trap studies show that the carbonate mineral that precipitates in the surface waters of the lake today is high-Mg calcite. The lake began to precipitate high-Mg calcite sometime in the mid–twentieth century after the artificial diversion of Bear River into Bear Lake that began in 1911. This diversion drastically reduced the salinity and Mg 2+ :Ca 2+ of the lake water and changed the primary carbonate precipitate from aragonite to high-Mg calcite. However, sediment-trap and core studies show that aragonite is the dominant mineral accumulating on the lake floor today, even though it is not precipitating in surface waters. The isotopic studies show that this aragonite is derived from reworking and redistribution of shallow-water sediment that is at least 50 yr old, and probably older. Apparently, the microbialite mound also stopped forming aragonite cement sometime after Bear River diversion. Because of reworking of old aragonite, the bulk mineralogy of carbonate in bottom sediments has not changed very much since the diversion. However, the diversion is marked by very distinct changes in the chemical and isotopic composition of the bulk carbonate. After the last glacial interval (LGI), a large amount of endogenic carbonate began to precipitate in Bear Lake when the Pacific moisture that filled the large pluvial lakes of the Great Basin during the LGI diminished, and Bear River apparently abandoned Bear Lake. At first, the carbonate that formed was low-Mg calcite, but ~11,000 years ago, salinity and Mg 2+ :Ca 2+ thresholds must have been crossed because the amount of aragonite gradually increased. Aragonite is the dominant carbonate mineral that has accumulated in the lake for the past 7000 years, with the addition of high-Mg calcite after the diversion of Bear River into the lake at the beginning of the twentieth century.

Bear Lake, Utah and Idaho, is one of only a few lakes worldwide with endemic ostracode species. In most lakes, ostracode species distributions vary systematically with depth, but in Bear Lake, there is a distinct boundary in the abundances of cosmopolitan and endemic valves in surface sediments at ~7 m water depth. This boundary seems to coincide with the depth distribution of endemic fish, indicating a biological rather than environmental control on ostracode species distributions. The cosmopolitan versus endemic ostracode species distribution persisted through time in Bear Lake and in a neighboring wetland. The endemic ostracode fauna in Bear Lake implies a complex ecosystem that evolved in a hydrologically stable, but not invariant, environmental setting that was long lived. Long-lived (geologic time scale) hydrologic stability implies the lake persisted for hundreds of thousands of years despite climate variability that likely involved times when effective moisture and lake levels were lower than today. The hydrologic budget of the lake is dominated by snowpack meltwater, as it likely was during past climates. The fractured and karstic bedrock in the Bear Lake catchment sustains local stream flow through the dry summer and sustains stream and ground-water flow to the lake during dry years, buffering the lake hydrology from climate variability and providing a stable environment for the evolution of endemic species.

Pollen analysis of sediments from core BL96-2 at Bear Lake (42°N, 111°20′W), located on the Utah-Idaho border in America’s western cordillera, provides a record of regional vegetation changes from full glacial to the late Holocene. The reconstructed vegetation records are mostly independent of Bear Lake’s hydrologic state and are therefore useful for identifying times when climate forcing contributed to lake changes. The Bear Lake pollen results indicate that significant changes in the Bear Lake vegetation occurred during the intervals 15,300–13,900, 12,000–10,000, 7500–6700, 6700–5300, 3800–3600, and 2200–1300 cal yr B.P. These intervals coincide with regional shifts in vegetation and climate, documented in pollen, isotope and biogeographic records in the Basin and Range region, suggesting that large-scale climate was the primary forcing factor for these intervals of change. Maximum aridity and warmth is indicated from 12,000 to 7500 cal yr B.P., followed by intervals of generally more mesic and cool conditions, especially after 7500 cal yr B.P.

Changes in diatom fossil assemblages from lake sediment cores indicate variations in hydrologic and climatic conditions at Bear Lake (Utah-Idaho) during the late glacial and Holocene. From 19.1 to 13.8 cal ka there is an absence of well-preserved diatoms because prolonged ice cover and increased turbidity from glacier-fed Bear River reduced light and limited diatom growth. The first well-preserved diatoms appear at 13.8 cal ka. Results of principal components analysis (PCA) of the fossil diatom assemblages from 13.8 cal ka to the present track changes related to fluctuations of river inputs and variations of lake levels. Diatom abundance data indicate that the hydrologic balance between 13.8 and 7.6 cal ka is strongly tied to river inputs, whereas after 7.6 cal ka the hydrologic balance is more influenced by changes in lake evaporation. Wet conditions maintained high river inputs from 13.8 to 10.8 cal ka and from 9.2 to 7.6 cal ka, with a dry interval between 10.8 and 9.2 cal ka. After 9.2 cal ka until 2.9 cal ka lake levels were high except for two periods, one between 7.6 and 5.8 cal ka and one between 4.3 and 3.8 cal ka, as a result of decreased effective moisture. After 2.9 cal ka, fossil diatom assemblages suggest drier conditions until 1.6 cal ka to the present, when fragments of large, pennate diatoms appear, possibly the result of a rapid lake transgression. Although similarities exist between the Bear Lake records and other western hydrologic and climatic records, the covariations are not strong. Our data suggest that climatic regimes at Bear Lake have changed frequently over time, perhaps as a consequence of the position of several important climatic boundaries near Bear Lake.

Bear Lake, in northeastern Utah and southern Idaho, lies in a large valley formed by an active half-graben. Bear River, the largest river in the Great Basin, enters Bear Lake Valley ~15 km north of the lake. Two 4-m-long cores provide a lake sediment record extending back ~26 cal k.y. The penetrated section can be divided into a lower unit composed of quartz-rich clastic sediments and an upper unit composed largely of endogenic carbonate. Data from modern fluvial sediments provide the basis for interpreting changes in provenance of detrital material in the lake cores. Sediments from small streams draining elevated topography on the east and west sides of the lake are characterized by abundant dolomite, high magnetic susceptibility (MS) related to eolian magnetite, and low values of hard isothermal remanent magnetization (HIRM, indicative of hematite content). In contrast, sediments from the headwaters of the Bear River in the Uinta Mountains lack carbonate and have high HIRM and low MS. Sediments from lower reaches of the Bear River contain calcite but little dolomite and have low values of MS and HIRM. These contrasts in catchment properties allow interpretation of the following sequence from variations in properties of the lake sediment: (1) ca. 26 cal ka—onset of glaciation; (2) ca. 26–20 cal ka— quasi-cyclical, millennial-scale variations in the concentrations of hematite-rich glacial flour derived from the Uinta Mountains, and dolomite- and magnetite-rich material derived from the local Bear Lake catchment (reflecting variations in glacial extent); (3) ca. 20–19 cal ka—maximum content of glacial flour; (4) ca. 19–17 cal ka—constant content of Bear River sediment but declining content of glacial flour from the Uinta Mountains; (5) ca. 17–15.5 cal ka—decline in Bear River sediment and increase in content of sediment from the local catchment; and (6) ca. 15.5–14.5 cal ka—increase in content of endogenic calcite at the expense of detrital material. The onset of glaciation indicated in the Bear Lake record postdates the initial rise of Lake Bonneville and roughly corresponds to the Stansbury shoreline. The lake record indicates that maximum glaciation occurred as Lake Bonneville reached its maximum extent ca. 20 cal ka and that deglaciation was under way while Lake Bonneville remained at its peak. The transition from siliciclastic to carbonate sedimentation probably indicates increasingly evaporative conditions and may coincide with the climatically driven fall of Lake Bonneville from the Provo shoreline. Although lake levels fluctuated during the Younger Dryas, the Bear Lake record for this period is more consistent with drier conditions, rather than cooler, moister conditions interpreted from many studies from western North America.

A variety of sedimentological evidence was used to construct the lake-level history for Bear Lake, Utah and Idaho, for the past ~25,000 years. Shorelines provide evidence of precise lake levels, but they are infrequently preserved and are poorly dated. For cored sediment similar to that in the modern lake, grain-size distributions provide estimates of past lake depths. Sedimentary textures provide a highly sensitive, continuous record of lake-level changes, but the modern distribution of fabrics is poorly constrained, and many ancient features have no modern analog. Combining the three types of data yields a more robust lake-level history than can be obtained from any one type alone. When smooth age-depth models are used, lake-level curves from multiple cores contain inconsistent intervals (i.e., one record indicates a rising lake level while another record indicates a falling lake level). These discrepancies were removed and the multiple records were combined into a single lake-level curve by developing age-depth relations that contain changes in deposition rate (i.e., gaps) where indicated by sedimentological evidence. The resultant curve shows that, prior to 18 ka, lake level was stable near the modern level, probably because the lake was overflowing. Between ca. 17.5 and 15.5 ka, lake level was ~40 m below the modern level, then fluctuated rapidly throughout the post-glacial interval. Following a brief rise centered ca. 15 ka (= Raspberry Square phase), lake level lowered again to 15–20 m below modern from ca. 14.8–11.8 ka. This regression culminated in a lowstand to 40 m below modern ca. 12.5 ka, before a rapid rise to levels above modern ca. 11.5 ka. Lake level was typically lower than present throughout the Holocene, with pronounced lowstands 15–20 m below the modern level ca. 10–9, 7.0, 6.5–4.5, 3.5, 3.0–2.5, 2.0, and 1.5 ka. High lake levels near or above the modern lake occurred ca. 8.5–8.0, 7.0–6.5, 4.5–3.5, 2.5, and 0.7 ka. This lake-level history is more similar to records from Pyramid Lake, Nevada, and Owens Lake, California, than to those from Lake Bonneville, Utah.

A ~220,000-year record recovered in a 120-m-long sediment core from Bear Lake, Utah and Idaho, provides an opportunity to reconstruct climate change in the Great Basin and compare it with global climate records. Paleomagnetic data exhibit a geomagnetic feature that possibly occurred during the Laschamp excursion (ca. 40 ka). Although the feature does not exhibit excursional behavior (≥40° departure from the expected value), it might provide an additional age constraint for the sequence. Temporal changes in salinity, which are likely related to changes in freshwater input (mainly through the Bear River) or evaporation, are indicated by variations in mineral magnetic properties. These changes are represented by intervals with preserved detrital Fe-oxide minerals and with varying degrees of diagenetic alteration, including sulfidization. On the basis of these changes, the Bear Lake sequence is divided into seven mineral magnetic zones. The differing magnetic mineralogies among these zones reflect changes in deposition, preservation, and formation of magnetic phases related to factors such as lake level, river input, and water chemistry. The occurrence of greigite and pyrite in the lake sediments corresponds to periods of higher salinity. Pyrite is most abundant in intervals of highest salinity, suggesting that the extent of sulfidization is limited by the availability of SO 4 2‒ . During MIS 2 (zone II), Bear Lake transgressed to capture the Bear River, resulting in deposition of glacially derived hematite-rich detritus from the Uinta Mountains. Millennial-scale variations in the hematite content of Bear Lake sediments during the last glacial maximum (zone II) resemble Dansgaard-Oeschger (D-O) oscillations and Heinrich events (within dating uncertainties), suggesting that the influence of millennial-scale climate oscillations can extend beyond the North Atlantic and influence climate of the Great Basin. The magnetic mineralogy of zones IV–VII (MIS 5, 6, and 7) indicates varying degrees of post-depositional alteration between cold and warm substages, with greigite forming in fresher conditions and pyrite in the more saline conditions.

A continuous, 120-m-long core (BL00-1) from Bear Lake, Utah and Idaho, contains evidence of hydrologic and environmental change over the last two glacial-interglacial cycles. The core was taken at 41.95°N, 111.31°W, near the depocenter of the 60-m-deep, spring-fed, alkaline lake, where carbonate-bearing sediment has accumulated continuously. Chronological control is poor but indicates an average sedimentation rate of 0.54 mm yr ‒1 . Analyses have been completed at multi-centennial to millennial scales, including (in order of decreasing temporal resolution) sediment magnetic properties, oxygen and carbon isotopes on bulk-sediment carbonate, organic- and inorganic- carbon contents, palynology; mineralogy (X-ray diffraction), strontium isotopes on bulk carbonate, ostracode taxonomy, oxygen and carbon isotopes on ostracodes, and diatom assemblages. Massive silty clay and marl constitute most of the core, with variable carbonate content (average = 31 ± 19%) and oxygen-isotopic values (δ 18 O ranging from ‒18‰ to ‒5‰ in bulk carbonate). These variations, as well as fluctuations of biological indicators, reflect changes in the water and sediment discharged from the glaciated headwaters of the dominant tributary, Bear River, and the processes that influenced sediment delivery to the core site, including lake-level changes. Although its influence has varied, Bear River has remained a tributary to Bear Lake during most of the last quarter-million years. The lake disconnected from the river and, except for a few brief excursions, retracted into a topographically closed basin during global interglaciations (during parts of marine isotope stages 7, 5, and 1). These intervals contain up to 80% endogenic aragonite with high δ 18 O values (average = ‒5.8 ± 1.7‰), indicative of strongly evaporitic conditions. Interglacial intervals also are dominated by small, benthic/tychoplanktic fragilarioid species indicative of reduced habitat availability associated with low lake levels, and they contain increased high-desert shrub and Juniperus pollen and decreased forest and forest-woodland pollen. The 87 Sr/ 86 Sr values (>0.7100) also increase, and the ratio of quartz to dolomite decreases, as expected in the absence of Bear River inflow. The changing paleoenvironments inferred from BL00-1 generally are consistent with other regional and global records of glacial-interglacial fluctuations; the diversity of paleoenvironmental conditions inferred from BL00-1 also reflects the influence of catchment-scale processes.