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NARROW
GeoRef Subject
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all geography including DSDP/ODP Sites and Legs
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Asia
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Far East
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China
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Inner Mongolia China (1)
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Xizang China (1)
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commodities
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elements, isotopes
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Primary terms
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Asia
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carbon
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metal ores
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lead-zinc deposits (5)
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Skarn Zonation of the Giant Jiama Cu-Mo-Au Deposit in Southern Tibet, SW China
Stream sediment geochemistry in mineral exploration: a review of fine-fraction, clay-fraction, bulk leach gold, heavy mineral concentrate and indicator mineral chemistry
Experimental study of apatite-fluid interaction and partitioning of rare earth elements at 150 and 250 °C
Combined use of multiple external and internal standards in LA-ICP-MS analysis of bulk geological samples using lithium borate fused glass
High-Grade Copper and Gold Deposited During Postpotassic Chlorite-White Mica-Albite Stage in the Far Southeast Porphyry Deposit, Philippines
INFLUENCE OF ORGANIC MATTER ON Re-Os DATING OF SULFIDES: INSIGHTS FROM THE GIANT JINDING SEDIMENT-HOSTED Zn-Pb DEPOSIT, CHINA
Copper-Gold Fertility of Arc Volcanic Rocks: A Case Study from the Early Permian Lizzie Creek Volcanic Group, NE Queensland, Australia
The Watershed Tungsten Deposit, Northeast Queensland, Australia: Permian Metamorphic Tungsten Mineralization Overprinting Carboniferous Magmatic Tungsten
Fluid compositions reveal fluid nature, metal deposition mechanisms, and mineralization potential: An example at the Haobugao Zn-Pb skarn, China
An Overview of Mineral Deposits of China
Using Mineral Chemistry to Aid Exploration: A Case Study from the Resolution Porphyry Cu-Mo Deposit, Arizona
Recent advances in the application of mineral chemistry to exploration for porphyry copper–gold–molybdenum deposits: detecting the geochemical fingerprints and footprints of hypogene mineralization and alteration
Classifying Skarns and Quantifying Metasomatism at the Antamina Deposit, Peru: Insights from Whole-Rock Geochemistry
Reconstruction of an Early Permian, Sublacustrine Magmatic-Hydrothermal System: Mount Carlton Epithermal Au-Ag-Cu Deposit, Northeastern Australia
Front Matter
Chapter 1 Mineral Deposits of China: An Introduction
Abstract As the second largest economy in the world, China plays an important role in the global mineral resources sector. In this contribution, an overview of the minerals industry of China covers the evolution of policies, mineral rights, mineral royalties, and mineral taxation. The advantages and challenges of conducting exploration and mining in the country are discussed. With more and more international mergers and acquisitions, Chinese companies have begun to more consistently apply Western technologies and management to their domestic and overseas exploration and mining projects. Despite the controversial mineral royalty policy and increasingly strict environmental protection regulations, the government recently relaxed some other regulations to make it easier for the industry. The general trend of improving conditions for overseas investment in China’s exploration and mining industry is encouraging for international companies and investors in mineral exploration.
Abstract The geologic framework of China is dominated by three major Precambrian continental blocks (North China, South China, and Tarim) and their surrounding orogenic belts. The Phanerozoic tectonics of China are represented by three orogenic systems that formed via amalgamation of these blocks and subduction/accretion along most of their margins. These orogenic systems include the Early Cambrian to early Mesozoic Altaids in the north, the Early Cambrian to Cenozoic Tethysides in the south, and the Mesozoic to present Nipponides in the east. The Altaids in northern Xinjiang, Beishan, Alxa, Inner Mongolia, and northeastern China comprises a huge orogenic collage of the Central Asian orogenic belt. The Altaids formed by substantial Phanerozoic continental growth by ocean closure and terrane accretion in the Permian-Triassic until its termination by collision with the Tarim and North China blocks in the Permo-Triassic. Southward subduction of the Mongol-Okhotsk oceanic plate beneath the North China block led to widespread magmatism and deformation in the Mesozoic. The Tethysides that occupy most of the area south of the Tarim and North China blocks acted as a major bulwark against the collision of several continental blocks, including the South China block. The western Tethysides in China is occupied by the Kunlun-Altyn-Qilian and Himalaya-Tibetan orogens that record a long amalgamation history involving the evolution of the Proto-, Paleo-, and Neo-Tethys Oceans. The Tethys Ocean was finally terminated by collision between the Indian continent and the southern margin of the Eurasian continent, giving rise to the bulk of the Tibetan Plateau. The development of the eastern Tethysides in China was dominated by Triassic amalgamation between the South China and North China blocks, which gave rise to the Qinling-Dabie-Sulu orogens, and coeval collisions with microcontinental blocks such as the Indochina block in the southeastern Tibetan Plateau. The evolution of the Nipponides started in the late Paleozoic to Triassic along the eastern margin of the Chinese mainland as a result of subduction of the Paleo-Pacific Ocean. The development of the Nipponides in the Jurassic led to extension of the Altaids in northeastern China and deformation along complicated compressional and strike-slip structures in the eastern North China block. This was followed by delamination of the lower crust of the eastern half of the North China block in the Early Cretaceous. The latest development of the Nipponides in the past few million years led to formation of marginal seas and back-arc basins off coastal China, and to recent continent-arc collision in Taiwan Island. The early Paleozoic history of China was dominated by separation of the Tarim, North China, and South China blocks from Gondwanaland and their drift across the Panthalassic Ocean. The Tarim-Alxa-North China-South China backbone that formed in the Permian-Triassic played an important role in the construction of China. According to the temporal-spatial history of the Tarim-Alxa-North China-South China block and its surrounding orogens, we postulate that most of the Paleo-Asian Ocean originally belonged to, or was part of, the Paleo-Pacific (Panthalassic) Ocean. Therefore, only two major oceanic plates were responsible for the construction of the Chinese landmass in the Phanerozoic, i.e., the Pacific (Panthalassic) and the Tethys. The Pacific Ocean encompassed a major long-lived, external ocean, and the Tethys Ocean was an internal ocean within Pangea.
Chapter 4 Temporal-Spatial Distribution of Metallic Ore Deposits in China and Their Geodynamic Settings
Abstract The temporal-spatial distribution of metallic ore deposits in China, including magmatic Ni-Cu ± platinum group elements (PGE), porphyry, skarn, volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS), epithermal, sedimentary rock-hosted Pb-Zn, Carlin-like Au, and orogenic Au deposits, reflects a diversity of tectonic settings. The ore deposits belong to 14 metallogenic provinces, contained within six age groups, which are classified based on geodynamic setting. Three of the provinces developed in the Precambrian (group I), nine developed in the Paleozoic and Mesozoic (groups II, III, IV, and V), and two developed in the Cenozoic (group VI). Except for the group I provinces, each of the other provinces is characterized by a major metallogenic age peak corresponding to a series of interrelated tectonic events or mantle plume activity. The Precambrian group can be subdivided into a Neoarchean metallogenic province in the North China craton that hosts several VMS deposits; a Proterozoic metallogenic province in the North China craton that hosts the 1505 Ma Bayan Obo carbonatite-related rare earth element (REE)-Nb-Fe deposit and the 832 Ma Jinchuan magmatic Ni-Cu-(PGE) deposit, and a Proterozoic metallogenic province in the South China block that hosts several iron oxide copper-gold deposits. Many of the deposits in these metallogenic provinces are related to continental rifting. The second group of metallogenic provinces occurs in the Chinese part of the Central Asian orogenic belt. It includes a Cambrian-Ordovician metallogenic province that developed during subduction of the Paleo-Asian oceanic plate, a Carboniferous-Triassic metallogenic province (Tianshan-Altay) that developed during final closure of the ocean, and a Permian-Triassic metallogenic province (NE China) that developed after arc-continent collision. Important ore deposits in these metallogenic provinces are, respectively, the 485 Ma Duobaoshan porphyry Cu-Mo deposit the 445 Ma Bainaimiao porphyry Cu-Mo-Au deposit; the 363 Ma Axi epithermal Au deposit, the 322 Ma Tuwu-Yangdong porphyry Cu deposit, the 284 Ma Huangshanxi magmatic Ni-Cu deposit; the 245 Ma Chehugou porphyry Mo-Cu deposit, the 223 Ma Jinchangyu orogenic Au deposit, and 220 Ma Hongqiling magmatic Ni-Cu deposit. The third group of metallogenic provinces occurs in the Tethyan metallogenic domain and can be further divided into a Cambrian-Ordovician Qilian-Kunlun-Sanjiang province that developed during subduction and closure of the Proto-Tethyan Ocean; a Carboniferous-Triassic province that developed during birth, subduction, and consumption of the Paleo-Tethyan Ocean; and a Jurassic-Cretaceous Tethys province that developed during subduction of the Meso-Tethys oceanic plate. Important ore deposits in these provinces include the 411 Ma Baiganhu W-Sn skarn deposit and the 412 Ma Xiarihamu magmatic Ni-Cu deposit that formed in a continental-arc setting; the Laochang Pb-Zn VMS deposit associated with ocean island basalt-like volcanism, the 220 Ma Pulang porphyry Cu deposit that formed in a continental-arc setting, and the 230 to 210 Ma Carlin-like Au deposits formed in a postcollisional environment in the western Qinling and the Youjiang basin; and the 119 Ma Tieyaoshan Sn skarn-greisen deposit, the 88 Ma Tongchanggou porphyry Mo deposit, and the 83 Ma Gejiu Sn skarn deposits. The fourth group of metallogenic provinces developed during subduction of the Pacific oceanic plate beneath southeastern China and comprises a Jurassic and a Cretaceous province. The former is represented by a cluster of ~160 Ma W-Sn skarn deposits in the Nanling region; the latter is known for many ~135 Ma skarn and porphyry Cu-Au deposits in the Tongling region and numerous ~125 Ma unusual orogenic Au deposits in the Jiaodong and Xiaoqinling regions. The fifth group is the Emeishan metallogenic province that is related to Permian mantle plume activity in southwestern China. Several world-class magmatic Fe-Ti-V oxide deposits, a few small magmatic Ni-Cu deposits, and a couple of small magmatic Pt-Pd deposits associated with mafic-ultramafic intrusions are present in this province. The sixth group of metallogenic provinces developed in the Cenozoic during continental collision in the Tibet and Sanjiang region. This group can be further divided into the Sanjiang province that is related to oblique collision, and the Tibet province that is related to orthogonal collision. Important ore deposits in these provinces are the ~41 Ma Yulong porphyry Cu-(Mo) deposit, the 37 Ma Beiya Au-Cu skarn deposit, the ~26 Ma Jinding sedimentary rock-hosted Zn-Pb deposit, the ~30 Ma Zhenyuan orogenic Au deposit, and the ~15 Ma Qulong and Jiama porphyry Cu deposits. The youngest metallogenic province in China occurs on the Taiwan Island. This province developed during the subduction of the Philippine Sea oceanic plate beneath the island in the Pliocene and the accretion of the Luzon volcanic arc to the island in the Pleistocene. This province contains numerous Pliocene orogenic gold deposits as well as the Pleistocene Chinkuashih epithermal gold deposit in northern Taiwan.
Abstract Porphyry Cu deposits in China contain a total resource of ~47 million tonnes (Mt) Cu at average grades ranging mostly from 0.2 to 0.7% Cu (most <0.5% Cu), accounting for 42% of China’s Cu reserves. In terms of contained Cu, 14 Cu-rich porphyry deposits are classified as giant (≥2.0 Mt Cu), and 38 are classified as intermediate (≥0.06 Mt Cu). These giant and intermediate deposits are mainly concentrated in seven belts or districts: Gangdese belt, southern Tibet; Yulong and Zhongdian belts, eastern Tibet; Duolong district, central Tibet; Dexing district and Middle-Lower Yangtze River Valley belt, eastern China; and the Central Asian orogenic belt in northern China. Other isolated giant deposits (e.g., Tongkuangyu) occur in the North China craton. These deposits were formed during Paleoproterozoic (~2100 Ma), Ordovician (~480–440 Ma), Carboniferous (~330–310 Ma), Late Triassic to Early Cretaceous (~215–105 Ma), and Eocene to Miocene (~40–14 Ma), with the majority forming during the latter two time periods. Adakite-like (e.g., high Sr/Y ratio) magmas are most favorable for the formation of the porphyry Cu deposits in China, although some deposits in the Central Asian orogenic belt and the Duolong district are associated with normal calc-alkaline intrusions with low Sr/Y ratios. Approximately 50% of the giant and ~35% of the intermediate porphyry Cu deposits in China formed in arc settings. The Xiongcun, Pulang, Duobuza, Bolong, and Naruo deposits in Tibet formed in continental arc settings, and the Central Asian porphyry Cu belt deposits (e.g., Tuwu-Yandong, Duobaoshan, Wushan, Baogutu, and Bainaimiao) formed in island-arc settings. Ore-forming porphyry magmas in arc settings in China probably formed by partial melting of metasomatized mantle wedge. Ascent and emplacement of porphyry magmas in arc settings was controlled by transpressional (e.g., strike-slip fault systems) or compressional deformation (e.g., arc-parallel thrust fault systems). Approximately 40% of the giant and ~65% of the intermediate porphyry Cu deposits in China occur in postcollisional settings. These deposits are mainly concentrated in the Tibetan Plateau, including four giant (e.g., Qulong, Jiama, Zhunuo, and Yulong) and more than 15 intermediate-size deposits. The mineralized intrusions in postcollisional settings were generated by partial melting of subduction-modified mafic lower crust. Ore-forming metals and sulfur were derived from remelting of sulfide phases that were introduced during precollisional arc magmatism, and the water in the Cu-forming porphyry magmas was concentrated during dehydration reactions in the upper parts of the subducting continental plate and/or degassing of mantle-derived H 2 O-rich ultrapotassic and/or alkaline mafic magmas. Porphyry magma ascent and emplacement were controlled by regional shear zones (e.g., strike-slip fault systems) or extensional fracture arrays (e.g., normal fault systems) in postcollisional settings. Porphyry Cu deposits in China mostly show typical alteration zoning from inner potassic to outer propylitic zones, with variable phyllic and argillic overprints. Potassic alteration can be generally subdivided into inner K-feldspar and outer biotite zones, with K-feldspar–rich alteration mostly earlier than biotite-rich alteration. Phyllic alteration generally comprises early-stage chlorite-sericite and late-stage quartz-sericite alteration, and the chlorite-sericite zone typically occurs beneath the quartz-sericite zone. Lithocaps are absent in most of the porphyry Cu deposits in China, even for those in the youngest (~30–14 Ma) ores in the Gangdese belt. Alteration architecture of the porphyry Cu deposits in China is mainly dependent on the structural setting and degree of telescoping. Telescoping of alteration assemblages in the postcollisional porphyry Cu deposits is more strongly developed than that in island and continental arc porphyry Cu deposits. This is probably because postcollisional porphyry Cu deposits and districts in China either experienced higher rates of synmineralization uplift or suffered more complex structural superposition, compared with those formed in magmatic arcs. Hypogene Cu mineralization in some giant porphyry deposits in China (e.g., Xiongcun, Qulong) is associated with potassic alteration and particularly with late-stage biotite alteration. But hypogene mineralization for more than 50% of giant porphyry Cu deposits, including the Dexing, Yulong, Tuwu-Yandong, Duobaoshan, and Tongkuangyu deposits, is characterized by a Cu sulfide assemblage with phyllic alteration, particularly with chlorite-sericite alteration. The presence of several world-class postcollisional porphyry Cu provinces in China demonstrates that the generation of porphyry Cu deposits does not always require a direct link to oceanic plate subduction.