ABSTRACT Ophiolite complexes represent fragments of ocean crust and mantle formed at spreading centers and emplaced on land. The setting of their origin, whether at mid-ocean ridges, back-arc basins, or forearc basins has been debated. Geochemical classification of many ophiolite extrusive rocks reflect an approach interpreting their tectonic environment as the same as rocks with similar compositions formed in various modern oceanic settings. This approach has pointed to the formation of many ophiolitic extrusive rocks in a supra-subduction zone (SSZ) environment. Paradoxically, structural and stratigraphic evidence suggests that many apparent SSZ-produced ophiolite complexes are more consistent with mid-ocean ridge settings. Compositions of lavas in the southeastern Indian Ocean resemble those of modern SSZ environments and SSZ ophiolites, although Indian Ocean lavas clearly formed in a mid-ocean ridge setting. These facts suggest that an interpretation of the tectonic environment of ophiolite formation based solely on their geochemistry may be unwarranted. New seismic images revealing extensive Mesozoic subduction zones beneath the southern Indian Ocean provide one mechanism to explain this apparent paradox. Cenozoic mid-ocean-ridge–derived ocean floor throughout the southern Indian Ocean apparently formed above former sites of subduction. Compositional remnants of previously subducted mantle in the upper mantle were involved in generation of mid-ocean ridge lavas. The concept of historical contingency may help resolve the ambiguity on understanding the environment of origin of ophiolites. Many ophiolites with “SSZ” compositions may have formed in a mid-ocean ridge setting such as the southeastern Indian Ocean.

ABSTRACT The southeast Ladakh (India) area displays one of the best-preserved ophiolite sections in this planet, in places up to 10 km thick, along the southern bank of the Indus River. Recently, in situ, ultrahigh-pressure (UHP) mineralogical evidence from the mantle transition zone (MTZ; ~410–660 km) with diamond and reduced fluids were discovered from two peridotite bodies in the basal mantle part of this Indus ophiolite. Ultrahigh-pressure phases were also found by early workers from podiform chromitites of another coeval Neo-Tethyan ophiolite in southern Tibet. However, the MTZ phases in the Indus ophiolite are found in silicate peridotites, but not in metallic chromitites, and the peridotitic UHP phases show systematic and contiguous phase transitions from the MTZ to shallower depth, unlike the discrete UHP inclusions, all in Tibetan chromitites. We observe consistent change in oxygen fugacity ( f O 2 ) and fluid composition from (C-H + H 2 ) to (CO 2 + H 2 O) in the upwelling peridotitic mantle, causing melting to produce mid-ocean-ridge basalt (MORB). At shallow depths (<100 km) the free water stabilizes into hydrous phases, such as pargasitic amphibole, capable of storing water and preventing melting. Our discoveries provide unique insights into deep sub-oceanic-mantle processes, and link deep-mantle upwelling and MORB genesis. Moreover, the tectonic setting of Neo-Tethyan ophiolites has been a difficult problem since the birth of the plate-tectonics concept. This problem for the origin of ophiolites in mid-ocean-ridge versus supra-subduction zone settings clearly confused the findings from Indus ophiolites. However, in this contribution, we provide arguments in favor of mid-ocean-ridge origin for Indus ophiolite. In addition, we venture to revisit the “historical contingency” model of E.M. Moores and others for Neo-Tethyan ophiolite genesis based on the available evidence and have found that our new results strongly support the “historical contingency” model.

ABSTRACT Geoheritage documentation is critical for the academic community, and thus incurs an expense to the general public, who may or may not feel the need to fund such an “academic” database. Fortunately, this documentation helps foster appreciation of geosites within a geotouristic framework and can inspire a nationalistic sense of pride, thus bringing about an economic incentive to countries actively involved in geoheritage research and documentation. Yet there remains a prejudice within academia that geoheritage is a descriptive field, is arbitrarily qualitative, and lacks the capacity to create new and important scientific discoveries. We present herein a description and discussion of the results of applying “cutting-edge” science in a geoheritage framework with ample examples from Greece and two case studies of its application. The first of these is The Aliakmon Legacy Project of Northern Greece that necessitated modern documentation to preserve its heritage base when plate tectonic global geoheritage localities were flooded. The second summarizes the geologic history of the Meteora World Heritage Site with an emphasis on how its long complex geologic history ultimately resulted in the Byzantine Monastic community. We propose this paper as a discussion model for the integration of primary geologic research with cultural heritage localities and emphasize that these promise to elevate geoheritage studies to a scale critical for documentation of human civilization itself. It is our opinion that geoheritage is capable of becoming a dynamic field of study in which documentation and preservation expands to integrate renewed multidisciplinary research that in turn comprises the scientific foundation of a “new” cutting-edge geologic field of study.

ABSTRACT The “petrological Moho” recognized in the Jurassic Vourinos Ophiolite (northern Greece) was the first “crust-mantle” boundary described within a fossil oceanic lithosphere. Early observations suggested a Cenozoic brittle-field block rotation of the petrological Moho transition area resulting in an oblique clockwise rotation of ~100°, but a brittle fault system responsible for the mechanism of this rotation was never located. A modern interpretation of research dating from the 1960s to the present documents the occurrence of a diverse set of ductile structures overprinting this primary intra-oceanic feature. The following observations from our original “Moho” studies in the Vourinos complex are still pertinent: the contact between the upper mantle units and the magmatic crustal sequence is in situ and intrusional in nature; high-temperature intragranular ductile deformation (mantle creep at temperatures from around 1200 °C down to ~900 °C) fabrics terminate at the crust-mantle boundary; the overlying oceanic crustal rocks display geochemical fractionation patterns analogous to crustal rocks in the in situ oceanic lithosphere. Since these original studies, however, understanding the mechanisms of ductile deformation and ridge crest processes have advanced, and hence we can now interpret the older data and recent observations in a new paradigm of oceanic lithosphere formation. Our major interpretational breakthrough includes the following phenomena: lower temperature, intergranular deformation of ~900 °C to 700 °C extends from the upper mantle tectonites up into the lower crustal cumulate section; the origin of mineral lineations within adcumulate crustal rocks as remnants of ductile deformation during early phases of magmatic crystallization; syn-magmatic folding and rotation of the cumulate section; the tectonic significance of flaser gabbro and late gabbroic intrusions in the crustal sequence; and the relevance and significance of a cumulate troctolite unit within the crustal sequence. These observations collectively point to an important process of a ductile-field, syn-magmatic rotation of the Moho transition area. The most plausible mechanism explaining such a rotation is proto-transform faulting deformation near the ridge crest. By recognizing and distinguishing structures that resulted from such initial rotational deformation in the upper mantle peridotites of ophiolites, future field-based structural, petrographic, and petrological studies can better document the mode of the initiation of oceanic transform faults.

ABSTRACT Determining the origin and evolution of basin-and-range geomorphology and structure in the western United States is a fundamental problem with global implications for continental tectonics. Has the extensional tectonic development of the Great Basin been dominated by steeply dipping (horst and graben) faulting or detachment faulting? The purpose of this paper is to provide evidence that attenuation due to multiple coalescing detachment faults has been a significant or dominant upper-crustal process in at least some areas of the Great Basin. We present mapping at a scale of 1:3000 and seismic refraction profiling of an area at the discontinuity between the White Pine and Horse Ranges, east-central Nevada, USA, which indicate the existence of a detachment rooted in an argillaceous ductile unit. This fault, which we call the Currant Gap detachment, coalesces with the previously mapped regional White Pine detachment. Our data suggest that the Currant Summit strike-slip fault at the surface, previously proposed to explain a nearly 2500 m east-west surface offset between the two ranges, likely does not exist. If a discontinuity exists at depth, it could be manifested at the surface by the undulating topography of the two coalescing detachments. On the other hand, offset domal uplifts in the two ranges would obviate the need for any lateral discontinuity at depth to explain the observed surface features. Our previous mapping of the White Pine detachment showed that it extends over the White Pine, Horse, and Grant Ranges and into Railroad Valley (total of 3000 km 2 ). Accordingly, we propose a model of stacked, coalescing detachments above the metamorphic infrastructure; these detachments are regional and thus account for most of the basin-range relief and upper-crust extension in this area. An essential feature of our model is that these detachments are rooted in ductile units. Detachments that have been observed in brittle units could have initiated at a time when elevated temperatures or fluid flow enhanced the ductility of the rocks. The Currant Gap and White Pine detachments exhibit distinctive types of fluid-genetic silicified rocks. Study of such rocks in fault contacts could provide insights into the initiation and early history of detachment faulting as well as the migration of fluids, including petroleum.

ABSTRACT The North American Cordillera is generally interpreted as a result of the long-lived, east-dipping subduction at the western margin of the North American plate. However, the east-dipping subduction seems problematic for explaining some of the geological features in the Cordillera such as large volume back-arc magmatism. Recent studies suggested that westward subduction of a now-consumed oceanic plate during the Cretaceous could explain these debated geological features. The evidence includes petrological and geochemical variations in magmatism, the presence of ophiolite that indicates tectonic sutures between the Cordillera and Craton, and seismic tomography images showing high-velocity bodies within the underlying convecting mantle that are interpreted as slab remnants from the westward subduction. Here we use 2-D upper mantle-scale numerical models to investigate the dynamics associated with westward subduction and Cordillera-Craton collision. The models demonstrate the controls on slab breakoff (remnant) following collision including: (1) oceanic and continental mantle lithosphere strength, (2) variations in density (eclogitization of continental lower crust and cratonic mantle lithosphere density), and (3) convergence rate. Our preferred model has a relatively weak mantle lithosphere, eclogitization of the lower continental crust, cratonic mantle lithosphere density of 3250 kg/m 3 , and a convergence rate of 5 cm/yr. It shows that collision and slab breakoff result in an ~2 km increase in surface elevation of the Cordilleran region west of the suture as the dense oceanic plate detaches. The surface also shows a foreland geometry that extends >1000 km east of the suture with ~4 km of subsidence relative to the adjacent Cordillera.

ABSTRACT The Porvenir serpentinites are an ~600-m-thick body of meta-peridotites exposed in SW Iberia (Variscan Orogen). The serpentinites occur as a horse within a Carboniferous, out-of-sequence thrust system (Espiel thrust). This thrust juxtaposes the serpentinites and peri-Gondwanan strata onto younger peri-Gondwanan strata, with the serpentinites occupying an intermediate position. Reconstruction of the pre-Espiel thrust structure results in a vertical juxtaposition of terranes: Cambrian strata below, Porvenir serpentinites in the middle, and the strata at the footwall to the Espiel thrust culminating the tectonic pile. The reconstructed tectonic pile accounts for yet another major thrusting event, since a section of upper mantle (Porvenir serpentinites) was sandwiched between two tectonic slices of continental crust (a suture zone sensu lato). The primary lower plate to the suture is now overlying the upper plate due to the Espiel thrust. Lochkovian strata in the upper plate and the Devonian, NE-verging folds in the lower plate suggest SW-directed accretion of the lower plate during the Devonian, i.e., Laurussia-directed underthrusting for the closure of a Devonian intra-Gondwana basin. Obduction of the Porvenir serpentinites was a two-step process: one connected to the development of a Devonian suture zone, and another related to out-of-sequence thrusting that cut the suture zone and brought upward a tectonic slice of upper mantle rocks hosted in that suture. The primary Laurussia-dipping geometry inferred for this partially obducted suture zone fits the geometry, kinematics, and timing of the Late Devonian suture zone exposed in NW Iberia and may represent the continuation of such suture into SW Iberia.

ABSTRACT Records of high-pressure/low-temperature (H P -L T ) metamorphic interfaces are not common in Precambrian orogens. It should be noted that the association of H P -L T metamorphic interfaces and strongly deformed ocean plate stratigraphy that form accretionary prisms between trenches and magmatic arcs are recognized as hallmark signatures of modern plate tectonics. In East Africa (Tanzania), the Paleoproterozoic Ubendian-Usagaran Belt records a H P -L T metamorphic interface that we consider as a centerpiece in reviewing the description of tectonic units of the Ubendian-Usagaran Belt and defining a new tectonic model. Our new U-Pb zircon age and the interpretations from existing data reveal an age between 1920 and 1890 Ma from the kyanite bearing eclogites. This establishment adds to the information of already known H P -L T metamorphic events at 2000 Ma, 1890–1860 Ma, and 590–520 Ma from the Ubendian-Usagaran Belt. Arc–back-arc signatures from eclogites imply that their mafic protoliths were probably eroded from arc basalt above a subduction zone and were channeled into a subduction zone as mélanges and got metamorphosed. The Ubendian-Usagaran events also record rifting, arc and back-arc magmatism, collisional, and hydrothermal events that preceded or followed H P -L T tectonic events. Our new tectonic subdivision of the Ubendian Belt is described as: (1) the western Ubendian Corridor, mainly composed of two Proterozoic suture zones (subduction at 2000, 1920–1890, Ma and 590–500 Ma) in the Ufipa and Nyika Terranes; (2) the central Ubendian Corridor, predominated by metamorphosed mafic-ultramafic rocks in the Ubende, Mbozi, and Upangwa Terranes that include the 1890–1860 Ma eclogites with mid-ocean ridge basalt affinity in the Ubende Terrane; and (3) the eastern Ubendian Corridor (the Katuma and Lupa Terranes), characterized by reworked Archean crust.

ABSTRACT The Maksyutov complex is a mid- to late-Paleozoic high- to ultrahigh-pressure (HP-UHP) eclogite-bearing subduction zone terrane in the south Ural Mountains. Previous reports of radial fractures emanating from quartz inclusions in garnet, omphacite, and glaucophane, cuboid graphite pseudomorphs after matrix diamond, and microdiamond aggregates preserved in garnet identified by Raman spectroscopy indicate that parts of the complex were subjected to physical conditions of ~600 °C and >2.8 GPa for coesite-bearing rocks, and >3.2 GPa for diamond-bearing rocks. Peak UHP eclogite-facies metamorphism took place at ca. 385 Ma, and rocks were exhumed through retrograde blueschist-facies conditions by ca. 360 Ma. Bulk analyses of 18 rocks reflect the presence of mid-oceanic-ridge basalt (MORB), oceanic-island basalt (OIB), and island-arc tholeiite (IAT) basaltic and andesitic series plus their metasomatized equivalents. To more fully constrain the petrotectonic evolution of the complex, we computed isochemical phase equilibria models for representative metabasites in the system Na 2 O-CaO-K 2 O-FeO-MgO-Al 2 O 3 -SiO 2 -H 2 O-TiO 2 based on our new bulk-rock X-ray fluorescence (XRF) data. Both conventional Fe-Mg exchange thermometry and phase equilibrium modeling result in higher peak equilibrium temperatures than were previously reported for the complex. Pseudosection analysis provides minimum P-T conditions of 650–675 °C and 2.4–2.6 GPa for peak assemblages of the least retrogressed Maksyutov eclogites, whereas Fe-Mg exchange thermometry yields temperatures of 750 ± 25 °C for a pressure of 2.5 GPa. We interpret our new P-T data to reflect a thermal maximum reached by the eclogites on their initial decompression-exhumation stage, that defines a metamorphic field gradient; the relict coesite and microdiamond aggregates previously reported testify to pressure maxima that define an earlier prograde subduction zone gradient. The eclogitic Maksyutov complex marks underflow of the paleo-Asian oceanic plate and does not represent subduction of the Siberian cratonal margin.

ABSTRACT Discrimination between gravity slides and tectonic fold-and-thrust belts in the geologic record has long been a challenge, as both have similar layer shortening structures resulting from single bed duplication by thrust faults of outcrop to map scales. Outcrops on uplifted benches within the Miocene to Pliocene Misaki accretionary unit of Miura-Boso accretionary prism, Miura Peninsula, central Japan, preserve good examples of various types of bedding duplication and duplex structures with multiple styles of folds. These provide a foundation for discussion of the processes, mechanisms, and tectonic implications of structure formation in shallow parts of accretionary prisms. Careful observation of 2-D or 3-D and time dimensions of attitudes allows discrimination between formative processes. The structures of gravitational slide origin develop under semi-lithified conditions existing before the sediments are incorporated into the prism at the shallow surfaces of the outward, or on the inward slopes of the trench. They are constrained within the intraformational horizons above bedding-parallel detachment faults and are unconformably covered with the superjacent beds, or are intruded by diapiric, sedimentary sill or dike intrusions associated with liquefaction or fluidization under ductile conditions. The directions of vergence are variable. On the other hand, layer shortening structure formed by tectonic deformation within the accretionary prism are characterized by more constant styles and attitudes, and by strong shear features with cataclastic textures. In these structures, the fault surfaces are oblique to the bedding, and the beds are systematically duplicated (i.e., lacking random styles of slump folds), and they are commonly associated with fault-propagation folds. Gravitational slide bodies may be further deformed at deeper levels in the prism by tectonism. Such deformed rocks with both processes constitute the whole accretionary prism at depth, and later may be deformed, exhumed to shallow levels, and exposed at the surface of the trench slope, where they may experience further deformation. These observations are not only applicable in time and space to large-scale thrust-and-fold belts of accretionary prism orogens, but to small-scale examples. If we know the total 3-D geometry of geologic bodies, including the time and scale of deformational stages, we can discriminate between gravitational slide and tectonic formation of each fold-and-thrust belt at the various scales of occurrence.

ABSTRACT The Franciscan Complex of California, the type example of an exhumed accretionary complex, records a protracted history of voluminous subduction accretion along the western margin of North America. Recent geochronological work has improved our knowledge of the timing of accretion, but the details of the accretionary history are disputed, in part, due to uncertainties in regional-scale correlations of different units. We present new detrital zircon U-Pb ages from two sites on opposite sides of San Francisco Bay in central California that confirm previously proposed correlations. Both sites are characterized by a structurally higher blueschist-facies unit (Angel Island unit) underlain by a prehnite-pumpellyite-facies unit (Alcatraz unit). The Angel Island unit yields maximum depositional ages (MDAs) ranging from 112 ± 1 Ma to 114 ± 1 Ma (±2σ), and the Alcatraz unit yields MDAs between 94 ± 2 Ma and 99 ± 1 Ma. Restoration of post-subduction dextral displacement suggests these sites were originally 44–78 km apart and much closer to other Franciscan units that are now exposed farther south in the Diablo Range. Comparison with detrital zircon dates from the Diablo Range supports correlations of the Bay Area units with certain units in the Diablo Range. In contrast, correlations with Franciscan units in the northern Coast Ranges of California are not robust: some units are clearly older than those in the Bay Area whereas others exhibit distinct differences in provenance. Integration of age data from throughout the Franciscan Complex indicates long-lived and episodic accretion from the Early Cretaceous to Paleogene. Although minor, sporadic accretion began earlier, significant accretion occurred during the interval 123–80 Ma and was followed by minor accretion at ca. 53–49 Ma. Periods of accretion and non-accretion were associated with arc magmatism in the Sierra Nevada–Klamath region, cessation of arc activity, and reorganization of paleodrainage systems, which implicates plate dynamics and sediment availability as major controls on the development of the Franciscan Complex.

ABSTRACT Field relationships in the Franciscan Complex of California suggest localization of subduction slip in narrow zones (≤300 m thick) at the depths of ~10–80 km. Accretionary and non-accretionary subduction slip over the ca. 150 Ma of Franciscan history was accommodated across the structural thickness of the complex (maximum of ~30 km). During accretion of a specific unit (<5 Ma), subduction slip (accretionary subduction slip) deformed the full thickness of the accreting unit (≤5 km), primarily on discrete faults of <20 m in thickness, with the remainder accommodated by penetrative deformation. Some faults accommodating accretionary subduction slip formed anastomosing zones ≤200 m thick that resulted in block-in-matrix (tectonic mélange) relationships but did not emplace exotic blocks. Mélange horizons with exotic blocks range in thickness from 0.5 m to 1 km. These apparently formed by sedimentary processes as part of the trench fill prior to subsequent deformation during subduction-accretion. Accretionary subduction slip was localized within some of these mélanges in zones ≤300 m thick. Such deformation obscured primary sedimentary textures. Non-accretionary subduction faults separate units accreted at different times, but these <100-m-thick fault zones capture a small fraction of associated subduction slip because of footwall subduction and likely removal of hanging wall by subduction erosion. Most exhumation was accommodated by discrete faults ≤30 m thick. Structural, geochronologic, and plate motion data suggest that of the ~13,000 km of subduction during the ca. 150 Ma assembly of the Franciscan Complex, ~2000 km was associated with accretion.

This volume honors Eldridge Moores, one of the most accomplished geologists of his generation. The volume starts with a summary of Moores’ achievements, along with personal dedications and memories from people who knew him. Leading off the volume’s 12 chapters of original scientific contributions is Moores’ last published paper that presents an example of the Historical Contingency concept, which suggested that earlier subduction history may result in supra-subduction zone geochemical signatures for some magmas formed in non-subduction environments. Other chapters highlight the societal significance of geology, the petrogenesis of ophiolites, subduction zone processes, orogenic belt evolution, and other topics, covering the globe and intersecting with Moores’ interests and influences.

Abstract Earthquakes and tsunamis are high-impact geohazard events that can be extremely destructive when they occur at large magnitudes and intensities, although their causes and potential locations are, for the most part, predictable within the framework of plate tectonics. Amongst the main reasons for their high impact include enormous numbers of casualties, extensive property damage in vast areas and significant social and economic disruption in urban settings where populous residential areas, global banking centres, industrial factories and critical facilities (nuclear power plants, dams) may be located. In order to reduce the impact of these geohazards, nations, societies, professional organizations and governments need to collaborate to prepare more effective seismic and tsunami risk assessments, disaster management plans, educational and training programmes for increased preparedness of the public, and strategic plans and objectives for capacity building, skill and knowledge transfer, and building of societal resilience. Improved building design and construction codes and emergency preparedness and evacuation plans should be part of disaster management plans in countries where destructive earthquakes and tsunamis have occurred. The rapid increases in population along coastal corridors in developing and developed countries is likely to escalate the social and economic impacts of these geohazards exponentially in the future. The chapters in this book present case studies of some of the most salient earthquake and tsunami events in historical and modern times, their origins and manifestations, and efforts and the most effective practices of risk assessment and disaster management implemented by various governments, international organizations and inter-governmental agencies following these events. New methods of computing probabilistic seismic hazard risks, delineating respect distance and damage zones along and across seismically active faults and recognizing tsunamigenic and submarine landslides on the seafloor are introduced. The conclusions presented in the chapters show that: (1) scientific understanding of the characteristics of seismically active faults is paramount; (2) increased local (community), national and global resilience is necessary to empower societal preparedness for earthquake and tsunami events; and, (3) all stakeholders, including policy-makers, scientists, local, state and national governments, media and world organizations (UNESCO, IUGS, GeoHazards International, Global Geodetic Observing System, National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program) must work together to disseminate accurate and timely information on geohazards, to develop effective legislation for risk reduction and to prepare realistic and practical hazard mitigation and management measures.

Abstract The Zagros Fold and Thrust Belt (ZFTB) in southern Iran is a seismically active tectonic zone, where SW-vergent thrust faults and NW–SE- and NE–SW-oriented strike-slip fault systems accommodate crustal shortening, resulting from the active Arabia–Eurasia collision. The majority of earthquakes in Iran occur within the ZFTB, posing a major hazard for society. The 9 April 2013 Kaki Earthquake (Mw 6.3) in the southern part of the ZFTB took place along a fault that was previously unknown regarding its surface expression, geometry and kinematics. We have used surface–subsurface distributions and focal mechanism solutions of the Kaki Earthquake aftershocks to characterize the fault system responsible for the quake. Our results indicate that it was a NE-vergent thrust fault with a minor dextral component that slipped c. 7–17 km at depth, causing the Kaki Earthquake. There were no surface ruptures, although some surface fissures developed in fluvial terraces during the main shock. We interpret this fault as a blind backthrust, which probably represents a reactivated Mesozoic basement fault emanating from the Zagros detachment surface. An upper shallow décollement zone within the Miocene Gachsaran Salt facilitated its upward propagation on the back-limb of an overturned syncline.