Abstract This paper highlights the use of synkinematic white mica, biotite and phlogopite for the dating of deformation in ductile shear zones within crystalline rocks under low-grade metamorphic conditions. The Mont Blanc shear zones range from 1 mm to 50 m in width and have localized intense fluid flow, resulting in substantial differences in mineralogy and whole-rock geochemistry. On the basis of their synkinematic alteration assemblages and geographic distribution within the Mont Blanc Massif, three main metamorphic zones are distinguished within the network of shear zones. These are: (i) epidote±white mica-bearing assemblages; (ii) chlorite–phlogopite-bearing assemblages; and (iii) white mica±biotite±calcite±actinolite±epidote- bearing assemblages. 40 Ar/ 39 Ar age spectra of biotite and phlogopite are complex, and reflect significant variations in chemical composition. In biotite, this is partly due to inheritance from precursor Variscan magmatic biotite. In contrast, new white mica grew at the expense of feldspar during Alpine deformation and its Ar spectra do not show any excess 40 Ar. On the SE side of Mont Blanc, ages of shear zone phengites have a narrow range of 15.8–16.0±0.2 Ma, which is in the same age range as 40 Ar/ 39 Ar ages of minerals from kinematically related veins. The top-to-SE sense of shear is consistent with initiation of a Mont Blanc flower-structure within a dextral transpressional system by 16 Ma. On the NW side, mini-plateaux ages of 14.5±0.3 and 23.4±0.4 Ma are preserved in the same sample, suggesting the possibility of two phases of deformation. This is also supported by partly preserved ages of 18–36.6 Ma in biotites and phlogopites. Ages between 36 and 18 Ma might reflect ongoing top-to-NW thrusting, following Penninic Front activation, in a context of nappe stacking and crustal thickening. NW-directed thrusting on the NW side of Mont Blanc continued after 18 Ma, synchronous with SE-directed thrusting on the SE side of the massif. These divergent movements produced the overall pop-up geometry of the Mont Blanc Massif, which may correspond to a positive flower structure developed within a zone of regional dextral transpression extending SW from the Rhone valley into the Mont Blanc area.

Abstract This paper highlights the relationships between the formation of shear zones, associated quartz-rich veins and their quartz-depleted alteration haloes (‘episyenites’) that have formed in the Mont Blanc Massif during the Alpine orogeny. The shear zones are steeply dipping and formed late (18–13 Ma) during collisional orogeny, at mid-crustal depths (5 ± 1 kbar, 400 ± 50 °C) during uplift of the Mont Blanc Massif. Between the shear zones, nearly undeformed granite contains widely dispersed, subhorizontal veins with a quartz-dominant quartz + albite + chlorite + adularia assemblage. They do not intersect the shear zones and are surrounded by quartz-depleted alteration haloes up to several metres wide. The compositions of the shear zones and the vein-alteration haloes (episyenites) show substantial departures from the bulk composition of the host rock. Shear zones are characterized by greenschist facies assemblages (epidote-, chlorite- or K-white-micabearing assemblages). Each shear zone type is featured by a specific chemical change: depletions in K 2 O, and enrichments in Fe 2 O 3 and CaO (epidote-); with depletions in CaO, Na 2 O, K 2 O and slight SiO 2 enrichments (white mica-chlorite-); with depletions in SiO 2 , CaO, Na 2 O, K 2 O and enrichments in MgO (phlogopite-chlorite shear zones). Episyenites are characterized by chemically induced porosity enhancement due to dissolution of magmatic quartz and biotite, with subsequent partial infilling of pore spaces by quartz, chlorite, albite and adularia. The vein arrays have accommodated minor vertical stretching in the Mont Blanc Massif, probably at the same time as the adjacent shear zones were accommodating more substantial vertical stretching in the massif. Coupled quartz dissolution in the wallrock alteration haloes and quartz precipitation in veins could be interpreted to reflect local mass transfer between wallrock and veins during essentially closed-system behaviour in the relatively underformed granite domains between shear zones. In contrast, shear zones probably develop in opened systems due to their kilometric length.

Abstract Fluid pathways between metal sources and sites of ore deposition in hydrothermal systems are governed by fluid pressure gradients, buoyancy effects, and the permeability distribution. Structural controls on ore formation in many epigenetic systems derive largely from the role that deformation processes and fluid pressures play in generating and maintaining permeability within active faults, shear zones, associated fracture networks, and various other structures at all crustal levels. In hydrothermal systems with low intergranular porosity, pore connectivity is low, and fluid flow is typically controlled by fracture permeability. Deformation-induced fractures develop on scales from microns to greater than hundreds of meters. Because mineral sealing of fractures can be rapid relative to the lifetimes of hydrothermal systems, sustained fluid flow occurs only in active structures where permeability is repeatedly renewed. In the brittle upper crust, deformation-induced permeability is associated with macroscopic fracture arrays and damage products produced in episodically slipping (seismogenic) and aseismically creeping faults, growing folds, and related structures. In the more ductile mid- to lower crust, permeability enhancement is associated with grain-scale dilatancy (especially in active shear zones), as well as with macroscopic hydraulic fracture arrays. Below the seismic–aseismic transition, steady state creep leads to steady state permeability and continuous fluid flow in actively deforming structures. In contrast, in the seismogenic regime, large cyclic changes in permeability lead to episodic fluid flow in faults and associated fractures. The geometry and distribution of fracture permeability is controlled fundamentally by stress and fluid pressure states, but may also be influenced by preexisting mechanical anisotropies in the rock mass. Fracture growth is favored in high pore fluid factor regimes, which develop especially where fluids discharge from faults or shear zones beneath low-permeability flow barriers. Flow localization within faults and shear zones occurs in areas of highest fracture aperture and fracture density, such as damage zones associated with fault jogs, bends, and splays. Positive feedback between deformation, fluid flow, and fluid pressure promotes fluid-driven growth of hydraulically linked networks of faults, fractures, and shear zones. Evolution of fluid pathways on scales linking fluid reservoirs and ore deposits is influenced by the relative proportions of backbone, dangling, and isolated structures in the network. Modeling of the growth of networks indicates that fracture systems reach the percolation threshold at low bulk strains. Just above the percolation threshold, flow is concentrated along a small proportion of the total fracture population, and favors localized ore deposition. At higher strains, flow is distributed more widely throughout the fracture population and, accordingly, the potential for localized, high-grade ore deposition may be reduced.