Abstract The Kohistan–Ladakh terrane, northern Pakistan/India, offers a unique insight into whole-arc processes. This research review presents summaries of fundamental crustal genesis and evolution models. Earlier work focused on arc sequence definition. Later work focused on holistic petrogenesis. A new model emerges of an unusually thick ( c. 55 km) arc with a c. 30 km-thick batholith. Volatile-rich, hornblende ± garnet ± sediment assimilation-controlled magmatism is predominant. The thick batholith has a complementary mafic–ultramafic residue. Kohistan crustal SiO 2 contents are estimated at >56%. The new-Kohistan, silicic-crust model contrasts with previous lower SiO 2 estimates ( c. 51% SiO 2 crust) and modern arcs that imply <35 km crustal thicknesses and arc batholith thicknesses of c. 7 km. A synthetic overview of Kohistan–Ladakh volcanic rocks presents a model of an older, cleaved/deformed Cretaceous volcanic system at least 800 km across strike. The Jaglot–Chalt–Dras–Shyok volcanics exhibit predominant tholeiitic-calc-alkaline signatures, with a range of arc-related facies/tectonic settings. A younger, post-collisional, Tertiary silicic volcanic system (the Shamran–Dir–Dras-2–Khardung volcanics) lie unconformably upon Cretaceous basement, and erupted within an intra-continental tectonic setting. Kohistan–Ladakh tectonic model controversies remain. In essence, isotope-focused researchers prefer later (Tertiary) collisions, whilst structural field-geology-orientated researchers prefer an older (Cretaceous) age for the Northern/Shyok Suture.

Abstract This paper examines communicating geoscience to indigenous peoples using a communication model that closely follows geological models for pollution issues. Although geoscientists will expend large amounts of energy in understanding a scientific process, relatively little energy is often expended in the analogous communication model. Reasons for this include a narrow focus on pure science, lack of confidence in engaging in communication and negative perceptions of communication ideas. Indigenous peoples are defined as ‘first occupiers’ of regions or nations relatively untouched by the predominant ‘Western–Asian’ technological-oriented culture. Few indigenous peoples are totally ‘untouched’ by the dominant world culture. Four cases studies from the Solomon Islands explore communication strategies relating to land access, a live volcanic event, the setting up of a gold mine, and raising awareness of volcanic hazards. Generic best practice advice offered includes the following: understanding of indigenous culture, customs, values, taboos and political–governance structures; involvement of indigenous people at every level of the communication process; identifying and including all stakeholders; a clear message, method and outcome focus; usage wherever possible of face-to-face communication and pictures as well as words; involvement of the community in practical exercises; a thorough follow-up and evaluation process; and sufficient time to allow the process to be effective.

Abstract Sustainable development requires an appropriate balance between social, economic and environmental well-being, now and for the future. Since most minerals are non-renewable resources, sustainability of supply can only be addressed by extracting, processing and distributing raw materials in the least environmentally damaging ways, using minerals wisely, and recycling as much as possible. However, there also is significant scope for improved sustainability in terms of economic and social aspects. Minerals are essential raw materials but high-quality deposits have become depleted in many developed countries. These countries have increasingly turned to developing countries for supplies and it is in these that most high-quality untapped future prospects remain. For countries with limited export opportunities, minerals are often a mainstay of the domestic economy. However, low selling prices may reflect limited environmental regulation and low wages. This can lead to charges that the rich countries are exporting their environmental damage to, and exploiting, poorer countries. As more countries develop, the global demand for supplies of essential raw materials increases, and resources will be depleted more quickly. Therefore, sustainable minerals supply from the developing countries is an important global issue. In this Special Report, general aspects of sustainable minerals operations in the developing world are reviewed by Petterson et al ., Hobbs, and Richards while the remaining papers consider specific issues in more detail. Hobbs, in particular, emphasizes the need to give proper weight each to human capital, financial capital, manufactured capital, and environmental capital in any full analysis as a context for sustainable development and effective aid.

Abstract A special thematic conference was organized at the Geological Society of London in November 2003, aimed at bringing together experts in minerals development in the Developing Countries. Representatives of many aspects of mineral development attended, including mining companies, governments, aid agencies, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), academics and consultants. The opening address to the conference is given in this paper. Mining is an ancient human activity developed through essential societal demand. As society and technology have developed, they have inevitably become ever-more materials hungry. This demand will remain for the foreseeable future. Many areas of the Developed World have depleted high-grade mineral deposits, and remaining resources are subject to strong environmental constraints. This increases pressure on the Developing World to generate the mineral commodities upon which society depends. Mineral resources are also a potential source of capital over which Developing Countries can have their own decision-making powers (in contrast to aid money for example). Sustainable mineral development is all about balance. Achieving the dynamic balance between supply and demand, equitable capital distribution, good financial and environmental management and governance, economics, and social stability is the challenge the world faces in the twenty-first century and beyond.

Abstract This paper reviews recent developments aimed at improving the mining sector’s contribution to sustainable development. Mineral endowments are regarded by many development and environmental non-governmental organizations (NGOs), as a ‘curse’ and counterproductive to long-term growth and poverty reduction goals, even antithetical to sustainable development in developing countries. This paper argues that, in spite of some empirical evidence in some countries, this is not an inevitable general rule and that the mining sector offers numerous possibilities for catalysing sustainable development and attainment of the millennium development goals. This is, however, conditional upon adequate governance and social and environmental safeguards being in place. The heterogeneity of the mining sector is considered and concern is expressed for the undermanagement of the growing, albeit not new, phenomenon of artisanal and small-scale mining in developing countries. Without better management of this sector any attempts to improve the contribution of mining to sustainable development will be severely limited.

Abstract Sustainable mineral resources development can be seen as the equitable conversion of transient mineral wealth into durable social and environmental capital. In the past, this conversion has not been efficient or equitable, with benefits accruing mainly to First World investors and consumers by externalization of social and environmental costs to local people and places. Modern industry, led by large multinational corporations, is in the process of changing its modus operandi to embrace ideas of corporate and social responsibility. The damage from past practices to the developing world is severe, however, and may require measures beyond voluntary or current legal instruments to reverse degenerative trends. Central among these requirements is Third World debt cancellation. However, the mining industry can also contribute by fully internalizing the costs of mineral production, and paying a fair price for the resources it extracts; these internalized costs should be reflected in higher commodity prices. This can be achieved through a combination of financial instruments and incentives, innovation, and best practice, with essential consumer buy-in through increased awareness.

Abstract Throughout the developing world, river sand and gravel is widely exploited as aggregate for construction. Sediment is often mined directly from the river channel and makes an important contribution to the national demand for aggregates. However, instream mining, if not carefully controlled, can cause significant damage to the river and its associated biota, and to the adjacent land, as well as creating conflict with other users of the river. The economic and environmental geology of river sand and gravel mining in developing countries is poorly known and there is little knowledge available to inform existing regulatory strategies. Research work on selected river systems in Jamaica and Costa Rica has generated a considerable amount of new information on resources and sediment budgets, on market and supply options, on the physical, biological and social impacts of extraction, and on best-practice legislative and mineral planning issues. A methodology has been developed for effective control of instream sand and gravel mining operations including a Code of Practice, which regulators can use for examining and reconciling the conflicting claims of sand and gravel extraction and the environment.

Abstract The composition of mining waste varies according to the nature of the mining operation and many other factors, but where the same mineral is extracted from a similar style of metalliferous or industrial mineral deposit or coal, the waste usually has similar characteristics. There are many potential sources of industrial minerals from mining waste. Waste from one mine may be a byproduct or coproduct in a mining operation elsewhere. Much technical research work on mine waste utilization, for example studies on slate waste, has included a manufacturing process. The waste is invariably an inferior material compared with an industrial mineral from a primary resource for the manufacturing process. Successful markets have not been found. Four scenarios are proposed where an industrial mineral product made from mining waste may be marketed successfully. These are a bulk product for a local market made with minimal or no processing; a low unit value product and a cost-effective alternative source of a mineral for local industry; an industrial mineral commodity traded nationally or internationally; and extraction of a high unit value rare mineral. Making an industrial mineral product from mining waste and successfully marketing it should involve minimal processing of the waste consistent with the value of the mineral product.

Abstract In Ghana, small-scale/artisanal gold mining has been on-going for more than a century. Artisanal mining has been the support for the rural people who more often than not are forced to sacrifice their farmlands and means of livelihood for large-scale mining operations. In order to reduce the activity of small scale/artisanal during the colonial era, laws were passed to bar indigenous operators from dealing in gold ore, amalgam, bullion, retorted gold, slags, concentrates and mercury. In recent years, however, under the auspices of the German non-governmental agency, Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) and the World Bank, the Ghana government has undertaken a number of initiatives to formalise and regulate small-scale mining operations. Unfortunately, small-scale mining activities are characterised by lack of capital and minimum use of appropriate technology in the mining and treatment of the minerals into finished products. In addition, the industry is associated with land degradation and water pollution. This paper explores possible strategies that aim to make small-scale gold mining in Ghana more sustainable (i.e. more efficient, less destructive to the environment and more meaningful to the operators and the country as a whole). The roles of stakeholders in the small-scale mining industry in Ghana are also identified. It concludes that, for sustainable small-scale mining, a pragmatic synergistic approach must be adopted by all stakeholders in the organisation, regularisation, training and support of small-scale mining operations in Ghana. Mineable lands need to be delineated, illegal operators should be organised and brought under a responsible umbrella, small-scale mining operators should be supported with funds, technology and education, and alternative livelihood programmes must be pursued in mining communities.

Abstract Zambia is a land-locked country occupying an area of 752 614 km 2 , with the geology dominated by Archaean to Neoproterozoic age rocks that contain significant mineral resources. Economically, the most important of these are the Neoproterozoic Katangan rocks, which yield the copper and cobalt ores exploited in the Zambian Copperbelt. Copper and Cobalt exports account for over 80% of Zambia’s foreign exchange earnings. Coal-bearing rocks of Karoo age (Permo-Carboniferous to Early Jurassic age) occur in rift valley basins such as the mid-Zambezi Valley in the south of the country. Issues such as a lack of capital investment led to privatization of the Zambian large-scale mining industry. Smaller scale gemstone mining is becoming increasingly important. For example, in 1998, the Ministry of Mines and Minerals Development granted over 200 gemstone-mining licences, 30 small-scale mining licences and prospecting permits, and over 70 artisanal mining rights for various minerals. A policy Framework Paper (1999–2001) published by the Zambian Government encourages the formalization of small-scale mining activities through the provision of licences for small-scale mining and gemstone trading, and the establishment of four regional mining bureaus for licensing and other services to the mining community. Furthermore, the Government has embarked on a Mining Sector Diversification Project with the support of the European Union, with the objectives of increasing export earnings through economic diversification, generating employment opportunities and contributing to poverty alleviation. In addition, the new policies and legal framework encourage private ownership of medium- and large-scale mining operations, and development of new mines. Currently, all former Government-owned mines that were under Zambia Consolidated Copper Mines Limited have been privatized. These activities are slowly generating much needed new investment to the mineral industry in Zambia. For many years, copper mining has supported the social and economic development of Zambia, accounting for around 90% of all Zambia’s foreign exchange earnings in 1991. Copper reserves are steadily declining, with total reserves remaining estimated at just over 2 billion tonnes at an average grade of 2.51% total copper. There are no recent economic mineral deposits discoveries to replace depleting copper reserves. Lead and zinc mining at Kabwe finished in 1994 due to reserve depletion. The Maamba Coal Mine in the Zambezi Valley is in need of re-equipment and modernization. Gemstone mining and marketing needs a complete overhaul. This paper reviews the major issues that have contributed to decline in sustainable development of the mineral industry in Zambia and highlights initiatives, both private and public, currently undertaken to revitalize the sector.

Abstract The last two to three decades have witnessed a rapid growth in the mining industry in Kenya. The suite of minerals includes metals such as gold, silver, copper, zinc and titanium, and industrial minerals ranging from talc and gypsum to dolomite and gemstones. Methods of exploitation, processing and beneficiation of these mineral resources can have diverse effects on the country’s socio-economic position, its varied ecosystems and general environment. The Mining Act (Cap 306) of 1940, which has been the principal Act for regulating minerals use and mining, lacks clear provisions on environmental management. This paper discusses mining guidelines set forth in a new regulatory framework known as the Environmental Management and Coordination Act of 2000, and evaluates their effectiveness and applicability by examining the proposed titanium mining project in the Kwale district. Through a major mining project, the Environmental Impact Assessment exposed the difficulties often encountered in implementing regulatory controls in all new mining ventures in Kenya, both large- and small-scale. It is submitted that the challenge of sustainability should be a major concern of the mineral industry to demonstrate not only profitability but also benefits to society and preservation of environmental integrity.

Abstract The artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) sector in sub-Saharan Africa is a sector usually associated with conflict minerals, fatal diseases, smuggling, criminal activity and civil war. Throughout Africa the ASM sector is unfortunately viewed in a negative and distorted manner with little appreciation or understanding for the realities and hardship of miners, their families and communities. However, the sector is burdened and plagued with issues ranging from child labour, gender inequality, the spread of HIV/AIDS, environmental devastation, poor health and safety, migrant workers, lack of capital and fair markets, and conflict with the private large-scale mining sector. The paper discusses the many overlapping and complex drivers, challenges, constraints and issues that characterize the sector and considers the potential solutions through the adoption of appropriate best practice, hopefully leading to sustainable livelihoods in the ASM sector and overall poverty alleviation. Key issues, such as institutional capacity, governance, assistance schemes, legislation, miners’ organizations, gender mainstreaming, child labour, health and safety, environmental protection, mineral trading and marketing, adding value, finance and credit, and the co-existence with the large-scale mining sector are all detailed. The paper also highlights ideas of what individual countries can do to help formalize and provide assistance to this vulnerable sector. Some of what is discussed concurs with the findings of the Mining, Minerals and Sustainable Development (MMSD) Project, the multi-donor Communities & Small-Scale Mining (CASM) initiative, the UN Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA) and UN Department for Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA) – Yaoundé Seminar on ASM in Africa, and most recently the African Mining Partnership (AMP). The bulk of this paper, however, has come from the experience gained by the author while managing and working on numerous projects commissioned by the UK’s Department for International Development (DFID), the World Bank, United Nations, various African Governments, private mining companies and NGOs in over 20 African countries.

Abstract In the less-developed parts of southern Africa, where agriculture is crucial in daily survival, agricultural lime is often difficult to obtain. This is due to the scarcity of production sites, high transport costs and inadequate support for farmers from government extension services. In Zambia there are upwards of 700 000 small-scale farmers who struggle to farm on acid soils and as a result have poor crop yields. They cannot afford to use agricultural lime, which would solve the problem, and as a result are trapped in a cycle of poverty. In an attempt to address this problem, the UK research project ‘FarmLime’, based in Zambia, investigated a means of producing affordable agricultural lime using simple, locally available technology. Dolomite suitable for agricultural lime occurs throughout Zambia, including those farming districts with acidic soils. It is estimated that small-scale production using partly manual methods could produce agricultural lime for US$25–30 per tonne. Demonstration crop trials were successful in demonstrating the benefits of using agricultural lime to small-scale farmers. Where the price of maize is high and the cost of lime is low, the economic benefits of its use are high. However, even if there is a demonstrable economic benefit, the use of agricultural lime will be constrained by the lack of cash in the rural economy; one potential solution to this could be bartering of crops for agricultural lime.

Abstract Modern urbanization, industrialization, transportation and communication systems are the achievements of worldwide sustainable mineral resource development and their proper utilization in various sectors. Sustainable mineral resources have played, and are still playing, a vital role in shaping the modern civilized industrial world. This means that the sustainable socio-economic infrastructure of any country is an indication of its richness in natural resources, its technological know how, its ability to explore and exploit mineral resources, and, finally, its wisdom in utilizing those resources properly in the development activities of the nation. In development activities, countries of the developing world are generally far behind compared with countries in the developed world. This is mainly due to a lack of adequate natural resources, properly educated human resources and good socio-economic conditions. Although Bangladesh is a small country, it has a number of mineral resources such as natural gas, oil, coal, hard rock, limestone, white clay, glass sand and mineral sand. At present, natural gas is the only mineral commodity significantly contributing to the national economy. More than 90% of the country’s energy needs are met by gas, total reserves of which are 21.35 trillion cubic feet (TCF) and 12.43 TCF, respectively. Huge reserves of hard rock (granodiorite, quartzdiorite, gneiss) and coal in northwest Bangladesh will help, in the near future, to meet the growing demand for construction materials and energy for the ever-growing population. Total coal reserves are 1753 million tons (MT), the market value of which is more than US$110 billion. Hard rock reserves are 115 million tons, valued at over US$3 billion. Fully fledged extraction of these resources would help to alleviate the country’s poverty through industrialization. It is expected that coal will soon be extracted on a commercial basis, of which 70 to 80% will be used in power generation. The mineral resources so far found in Bangladesh are meagre in comparison to its high population. To meet the growing demand of the population, more mineral resources need to be discovered and developed, otherwise sustainable development cannot be achieved. However, it is difficult for developing countries like Bangladesh to carry out the necessary activities for exploration and exploitation of hidden mineral resources without foreign assistance. This is a major drawback for Bangladesh. To progress towards an endurable sustainable society, a nation such as Bangladesh must give priority to the development of its existing mineral resources, which can play a major role in helping to reshape the country’s socio-economic infrastructure.

Abstract Pakistan is a large country with diverse geology and geography. It possesses many industrial rocks and minerals, including precious stones, marble and granite. Some metallic mineral deposits, and large reserves of coal/lignite, oil and natural gas also occur. Pakistan’s mining industry is dominated by thousands of artisanal and small-scale mines, which lack capital, technical know how, modern equipment and trained manpower. Further, local mining practices cause much damage to mineral deposits and are very hazardous to the health of mine workers and the environment. The mining sector is backward due to lack of political will and pragmatic mining laws, and absence of technical and financial support by the government agencies to the small mining units. Moreover, the narrow base of the domestic mineral industry leads to poor demand in the local market and low mineral production. Additionally, the lack of infrastructure and the poor law and order situation adversely affect the mineral industry. Further, mineral-rich districts of the country are socio-economically backward due to hilly terrain or arid climate and, hence, less suitable for agriculture. Sustainable development of artisanal and small-scale mines is possible if the necessary legal, technological, financial, commercial, social and environmental support is provided on a long-term basis.

Abstract The exploitation of mineral resources through surface and underground mining has in the past caused a wide range of environmental problems such as health degradation, air, water and noise pollution, decline in agricultural production, deforestation, displacement and other socio-economic impacts. However, over the past number of years, stakeholders in the industry have been striving to avoid and mitigate the potential detrimental effects of mining on fragile ecosystems and local communities. Governments are increasingly formulating and adopting policies to ensure the sustainable development of their country’s mining industry and mining companies are striving to be better environmental citizens. Environmental groups have become increasingly involved in mining disputes. However, a lot has to be achieved to ensure mining in carried out in a sustainable way. This paper concentrates on the environmental effects of coal mining in the Ib valley coalfield of Orissa, India. Background to the increasing awareness of the environmental issues associated with mining is provided in the first section of this paper. The second section discusses the general problems associated with mining, with particular reference to the Ib valley coalfield. In addition, measures undertaken by the companies operating the Ib valley coalfield to deal with environmental problems are presented.

Abstract The Pacific small island state of Solomon Islands gained independence from Britain in 1978. Solomon Islands has a population of around 400 000 mainly Melanesian people distributed across six moderately sized islands and hundreds of smaller islands. The traditional economy has been based on hunter-gatherer and small-scale farming activities, with the bulk of the population residing in self-sufficient rainforest and coastal villages. Melanesians have a particularly strong cultural attachment to land, which is considered to be within the custodianship of the community at large. Individual land ownership in the Western economic sense is largely unknown. Melanesian society and culture is strong and complex. Colonial and post-independence Solomon Islands has had to face the challenges of a transition from a traditional society to a partially urbanized society and a rapidly increasing population and changing economic drivers and dynamics. Mining and mineral development is one area of economic activity that holds the promise of generating hard currency quickly to develop the country, but that needs to be achieved in a sustainable manner. Gold Ridge is situated in Central Guadalcanal, some 22 km southeast of the country’s capital town, Honiara. Gold Ridge hosts around 1.4 million ounces of epithermal volcanic-hosted gold. Ross Mining NL began the construction of Solomon Islands’ first gold mine in 1997 and operated a highly successful gold mine between 1997 and 2000, when ethnic tensions (unrelated to the mine) closed the operations. This paper documents the painstaking negotiations and planning that took place from 1993 and particularly from 1995–1996 which paved the way forward for the development of a gold mine within a fragile tropical rainforest environment among traditional Melanesian people who had little prior knowledge of modern mining activities.

Abstract Timor Leste is the newest and one of the poorer nations in the world. One of its main challenges that could lead to poverty reduction is the reconstruction and maintenance of the infrastructures that were almost completely destroyed after its independence referendum. To achieve this, there is an imperative need for construction raw materials in a country where the extractive industry is scarce and artisanal. Available geological studies deal with the island’s geology and tectonic evolution or its oil and gas potentialities. Very few broach other geological resources. A general study of the country’s territory demonstrates that Timor Leste possesses large resources in clays, limestones and sand and gravel, which can support small- to large-scale raw material extractive industries. Some selected areas have been the target of more detailed study: Venilale and Aileu, with resources for structural ceramics and whiteware respectively, and Beheda, where a crinoid-rich limestone crops out, with potential for usage as ornamental stone. These resources are suitable for non-sophisticated small-scale mining operations that should be able to accomplish environmental and social liabilities. No public policy exists for the management of these mineral resources, which is essential for the sustainable development of Timor Leste.