Abstract The fossil record of skeletons of small organisms, typically 1–3000 μm in size, extends into the deep Precambrian. Some of the earliest putative microfossils are prokaryotic organisms from the Archaean, while the earliest putative eukaryote microfossils are known from the Palaeo-proterozoic. Eukaryotic microfossils include unicellular forms such as foraminifera and radiolarians, and animals such as ostracods and conodonts. While widely applied to biostratigraphical and palaeoenvironmental investigations in geological contexts, microfossils have an increasing importance in archaeological and forensic studies. Their small size, skeletal robustness, remarkable range of morphologies, wide distribution and huge numbers in small samples have proved decisive in the provenance of archaeological and forensic evidence. Further, they provide environmental context for the increasing influence of humans on the landscape from Palaeolithic to Classical cultures.

Abstract Even though other sites (Pakefield and Happisburgh in East Anglia) have now provided the earliest evidence of humans in Britain through their tools, Boxgrove (Eartham Quarry) in West Sussex, South England still contains their oldest teeth and bones found so far in this country, which have been dated to Marine Isotope Stage 13, between 525 000 and 478 000 years ago. Prolific finds of flint tools and vertebrate remains (both large and small) have made Boxgrove internationally famous. Microfossils (foraminifera and ostracods), however, have formed the means by which the palaeoenvironment has been reconstructed, and this is narrated here from nearshore marine, through intertidal flats in a semi-enclosed bay to, on final regression, a grassland plain with a series of freshwater pools fed by springs emanating from the Chalk. These pools were the waterholes to which the animals were attracted, and therefore formed the hunting grounds for hominins. Palaeoclimatic reconstructions using the Mutual Ostracod Temperature Range (MOTR) method show that sustained human occupation occurred during a period when the region was colder in winter and may have experienced greater seasonal temperature variation than the present day.

Abstract This paper focuses on the submerged landscapes of the southern North Sea, an area often referred to as Doggerland, which was inundated as a result of relative sea-level rise at the start of the Holocene. The timing, pattern and process of environmental changes and the implications for prehistoric (Mesolithic) human communities living in this area have long been a subject of debate and discussion. Recent developments in marine geophysics have permitted the mapping of the pre-submergence landscape, leading to the identification of landforms including river channels and other contexts suitable for the preservation of palaeoecological records. The paper describes multi-proxy (pollen, foraminifera, plant macrofossil and insect) palaeoenvironmental analyses of a vibrocore sequence recovered from a palaeochannel feature c. 80 km off the coast of eastern England. The palaeochannel preserves sediments of Late Pleistocene and Holocene age (MIS2/1); the record suggests that channel incision, probably during the early Holocene, was followed by a phase of peat formation ( c. 9–10 cal ka BP) indicating paludification and the subsequent reactivation of the channel ( c. 9–6 cal ka BP), initially under freshwater and increasingly brackish/saline conditions, and a final transition to full marine conditions (6–5 cal ka BP). The pollen, macrofossil and beetle records indicate the presence of pre-submergence deciduous woodland, but detailed interpretation of the data is hindered by taphonomic complications. The paper concludes with a discussion of the problems and potentials of using palaeoenvironmental data to reconstruct complex patterns of environmental change across Doggerland in four dimensions, and considers specific questions concerning the implications of such processes for Mesolithic human communities.

Abstract The transition from Mesolithic hunter-gatherers to Neolithic agriculturalists was one of the most important turning points in human history. The economic base, material culture, population levels, settlement patterns and world views were transformed, along with significant changes in the ways in which people interacted with the landscape, including impacts upon the vegetation cover. The rate and process by which Mesolithic economies and societies were replaced by those of the Neolithic in Britain’s mid-Holocene forested landscape is difficult to discover by archaeological methods, unless it involved the rapid immigration of high numbers of fully Neolithic farmers. Before the transformation was completed and Neolithic societies were established everywhere, there could well have been an extended period of time during which early settlers introduced domesticated animals and other elements of Neolithic-style economy and land use. Mesolithic groups could well have co-existed with these pioneer agro-pastoralists and continued with their foraging strategies as the transition progressed until finally supplanted. Such early agriculturalists might be hardly visible in the archaeological record but, as vegetation is a sensitive indicator of environmental change, the introduction of new land-use techniques and their impacts should be discernable in the pollen and spore record. In this paper we examine the ways in which palynology has been used in Britain to investigate the transition from forager to farmer, illustrated by examples from three sites in NE Yorkshire. Palynological methodologies and problems are evaluated. Evidence suggests that late Mesolithic people were using fire to manipulate woodland and improve its food resources. The cultivation of cereals might have been an early agricultural introduction. There was a phase of forest farming in the later transition in which the woodland was managed and utilized rather than opened significantly. Woodland clearance and more intensive farming occur after the transition was completed.

Abstract A sediment core extracted from Queen’s Sedgemoor, Somerset, SW England, has undergone high-resolution radiocarbon dating, with subsequent directed palynological, diatom, microfossil and mollusc analyses focusing on the sedimentary sequence associated with the late Mesolithic and early Neolithic periods. The microfossil and macrofossil evidence supports stratigraphic evidence for hydroseral succession and the subsequent development of a raised bog. Such palaeoenvironmental investigations provided evidence of the changing character of the wetlands at a time when there is evidence of Mesolithic activity elsewhere in the Somerset Levels. While very low pollen counts limited the interpretive potential of deposits associated with the Mesolithic–Neolithic transition, the multi-proxy micropalaeontological study has revealed a clear picture of landscape change for much of the sedimentary archive, and has identified a new freshwater body within the Somerset Levels in an area of known human activity from the late Mesolithic onwards.

Abstract Pollen analysis provides a powerful tool for understanding past human activity and its impact on the environment. This is due to pollen being preserved in a wide range of sedimentary environments and pollen being derived from, and therefore providing a record of, vegetation beyond the sampling location. While the basic premise of pollen analysis has remained constant since the pioneering work of Lennart von Post 100 years ago, methodological approaches for interpretation of pollen records have continued to evolve. Large datasets can now be compiled for identifying and exploring the complexities of pollen data temporally and spatially. Here two Holocene pollen stratigraphic changes in the British Isles are focused upon: the Ulmus and Tilia declines. Methodologies for examining the chronological controls on the timing of these changes and disentangling the processes recorded in pollen data are presented. Of particular note are the complexities of separating human impacts from natural processes in coastal wetland records, which have been one of the main sources of pollen data from lowland England. We argue that it is only by unravelling the complexities of both the chronological and pollen data that extant theories on the interaction between past human activity and vegetation change can be rigorously tested.

Abstract Ancient harbour basins, lagoons and coastal lake sediments buried beneath the Mediterranean delta plains can be considered as long-term archives of anthropogenic impacts. The benefits of a micropalaeontological approach in studying archaeological sites located in marginal marine environments are that the archaeologically biased picture can be strongly enriched by detailed palaeolandscapes information. In marginal marine environments, ostracods are known to be excellent indicators because: (1) many species have a well-known tolerance to salinity variations; (2) the analysis of population structure provides good indications about the autochthony of the assemblage; and (3) they react to even subtle environmental changes, both natural and anthropogenically forced, in terms of densities, distribution of selected species and phenotypic traits. Examples of ostracod studies will focus on three site typologies: buried landlocked harbours, fluvial harbours and coastal lagoons/lakes. In those studies, the use of different but complementary approaches (archaeology v. micropalaeontology) allowed the reconstruction of diachronic landscapes, linking the natural evolution of coastal and alluvial plains to regional population and settlement dynamics.

Abstract Microfossils are found associated with building materials, ceramics, tools, works of art and human remains. Despite problems associated with the destructive preparation techniques required to examine microfossils, their size renders them important analytical tools as they can be recovered from small samples such as potsherds, tesserae and even chips of paint. Biostratigraphical and palaeoenvironmental analysis provides data that can be used to determine the provenance of raw materials and their transportation along trade routes, the migrations of agricultural practices, diet and culture. A more profound archaeological analysis can therefore be achieved by taking an integrated approach as outlined here.

Abstract Calcareous nannofossils are one of several groups of microscopic fossil remains that can occur within archaeological artefacts such as ceramics, lithics and plaster. Their detailed taxonomic and biostratigraphic study holds significant potential to address archaeological questions such as raw material procurement, artefact provenance and related topics including trade, exchange, migration, technological choice and tradition. Here the occurrence of nannofossils in ancient artefacts is discussed, a method for their study is outlined, and a review of the ways in which they have been used in this interesting and poorly reported context is presented.

Abstract The remains of potters’ workshops, dating to the Early Bronze and Late Bronze ages, came to light during the 1930s British excavations at Tel Lachish, Israel. In the course of a recent petrographic study, well-preserved microfossils were identified in thin-sections of unfired sherds and prepared clay from these workshops. Subsequent specialist micropalaeontological analyses for both calcareous foraminifera and nannofossils were carried out in order to address a number of archaeological questions. When combined with the micropalaeontological analysis of new out-crop samples in the vicinity of the site, it is clear that clays derived from the late Eocene to early Oligocene marls and chalks, exposed at the base of the tell, were extensively used by both the Early and Late Bronze Age potters. In addition, the study has brought to light new information about their activities, particularly with regard to their choice and use of raw materials over time. We also provide new nannofossil-based age constraints on the upper Bet Guvrin Formation and the lower part of the Lachish Formation in the Lachish area.

Abstract Clay was an important resource for the Iron Age and Romano-British population of eastern England as a building material as well as in the manufacture of ceramics. The micropa-laeontological and petrological signatures of potsherds from the hill fort at Burrough Hill (Leicestershire), Gamston (Nottinghamshire) and four sites in Cambridgeshire (Barley Croft Farm, Trumpington Meadows, Bradley Fen and Kings Dyke, Whittlesey) reflect the age and geological provenance of the raw materials and the firing methods. The clay used in the ceramics from Burrough Hill appears to have been sourced from the local Pleistocene glacial till (Anglian-age Oadby Member, Wolston Formation), whereas those from Gamston were probably derived from the nearby Lower Jurassic strata. Although microfossils were very rare in the material from Cambridgeshire, those found are not inconsistent with an Upper Jurassic source.

Abstract Thin-section analysis of chalk tesserae obtained from two Roman mosaics in Caerleon (South Wales) identifies foraminifera of a Late Cretaceous (Campanian) biostratigraphic age. The mosaics from which the tesserae originated were laid either in or close to the legionary fortress built at Caerleon by the Romans in AD 74–75. The Backhall Street mosaic formed part of the Baths complex of the fortress and is dated to the AD 80s; the August Villa Garden tesserae were found close to Barrack Buildings IX and X of the fortress and may have been laid about AD 200. Chalk Group outcrops are not found close to Caerleon, so the chalk used in both instances must have been transported to the site. The foraminiferal analyses suggest a possible source in the Dorset area. A transport route from Dorset to the legionary fortress at Caerleon via ports at either Crandon Bridge or Sea Mills on the Severn estuary is suggested.

Abstract Micropalaeontology is a component part of forensic geology, but it also has strong links with botany and palaeoecology. Despite the now almost universal use of DNA in criminal investigations there are still many crimes for which micropalaeontological analyses can provide useful, if not crucial, forensic evidence. This chapter outlines the development and use of microfossils and environmental profiling, using pollen and spores in particular, but also other microfossils such as diatoms, ostracods and foraminifera. The critical attributes of microfossils are their small size, robustness and known source or distribution. The value of a multi-microfossil approach and the use of allied geological data, such as mineralogy, is also discussed. The use of microfossil data is illustrated using two forensic case studies, one in the UK and one undertaken for the United Nations after the Bosnian War, both of which were tested in court.

Abstract Diatoms are unicellular, photosynthetic, eukaryotic organisms often classified as among the algae. There are around 15 000 known species, but many more have yet to be described. Their uniqueness lies in the siliceous covering of the cell, each being encased in a pair of silica valves. Silica is virtually inert and indestructible, so after the organism’s death the silica parts remain. The silica parts provide information for the classification of these diverse organisms. Diatoms have been used in forensic science in a variety of ways, the most frequent being the diagnosis of death by drowning. When a person drowns, water will enter the lungs and then enter the bloodstream through ruptures in the peripheral alveoli before being carried to the other organs such as the liver and heart. Naturally, the microscopic contents of the water, which will include diatoms, will pass into the blood as well. The detection of diatoms in the organs can contribute to a diagnosis of death by drowning, a process referred to as the ‘diatom test’ We will discuss this test in more detail, illustrating our discussion with real examples.

Abstract There is a considerable history of using calcareous microfossils in criminal investigations, and cases all fall into the provenance category. These are cases in which sediments containing calcareous microfossils are associated with a crime scene, but do not necessarily originate in that location. By establishing the provenance of the sediment based on specific characteristic microfossils, the micropalaeontologist is able to assist in the investigation by potentially linking a vehicle and its user with a crime scene. This study examines the use of both foraminifera and calcareous nannoplankton in criminal investigations. It focuses on the importance of both microfossil groups during the police investigation of the Soham murder case in which these microfossils were used to place the suspect’s vehicle at the location where the bodies of the two victims were found. Clear recognition of both the foraminifera and the calcareous nannoplankton on the vehicle as being from a stratigraphically constrained unit of the Cretaceous Grey Chalk, and the establishment of its provenance, were a major element of the prosecution case. Other lithological criteria, including the mineralogy of the chalk and the field evidence regarding access routes and site topography, were also used to exclude alternative potential sources for the chalk on the vehicle.

Abstract Microfossils are an abundant component of the sedimentary rock record. Their analysis can reveal not only the environments in which the rocks were deposited, but also their age. When combined, the spatial and temporal distribution patterns of microfossils offer enormous utility for archaeological and forensic investigations. Their presence can act as a geological ‘fingerprint’ and the tiniest fragment of material, such as a broken Iron Age potsherd, can contain a microfossil signature that reveals the geographical source of the materials under investigation. This book explores how microfossils are employed as tools to interpret human society and habitation throughout history. Examples include microfossil evidence associated with Palaeolithic human occupation at Boxgrove in Sussex, alongside investigations into human-induced landscape change during the Holocene. Further examples include the use of microfossils to provenance the source materials of Iron Age ceramics, Roman mosaics and Minoan pottery, in addition to their application to help solve modern murder cases, highlighting the diverse applications of microfossils to improving our understanding of human history.

Abstract The term ‘Anthropocene’ has been proposed to indicate a geological interval characterized by global anthropogenic environmental change. This paper attempts to recognize a method by which the Anthropocene can be defined micropalaeontologically. In order to do this, microfloras and microfaunas (diatoms, macrophytes, dinoflagellate cysts, foraminifera and ostracods) from nearshore waters through to paralic and freshwater aquatic milieux are considered, and biotic variability with an anthropogenic causation identified. Microbiotic change can be related to anthropogenically induced extinctions, pollution-related mutation, environmentally influenced assemblage variability, geochemistry of carapaces/tests, floral change related to lacustrine acidification, faunal and floral correlation to industrial and agricultural signatures and introduction of exotic species via shipping. The influence of humanity on a local scale can be recognized in assemblages as far back as 5000 years BP. However, widespread anthropogenic change took place in Europe and America, particularly in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, although in Asia (e.g. Japan) it cannot be observed prior to the twentieth century. Profound and global biotic change began in the mid-twentieth century and, if the Anthropocene is to be defined in this way, then the period 1940–1945 might encompass the biotic base of the interval.