Abstract The first recorded use of terrain analysis was in 1813 during the Napoleonic Wars, and in most major military operations since that time, geologic counsel and assessment have played important roles. Intelligent use of the terrain of the battlefield, movement of supplies and personnel, and the procurement of adequate supplies of water and of construction materials all have relied on an understanding and application of geologic principles. During the 19th century, as the value of geologic insight came to be recognized, books on military geology appeared as did basic courses in geology at military academies in the United States and abroad. Beginning in World War I, vital geologic data were placed on increasingly sophisticated specialized terrain maps and used both tactically and strategically. Successful military mining beneath enemy fortifications in World War I required an understanding of subsurface geology, including hydrogeology. And in the 1940s and 1950s, geologic principles were applied on an unprecedented scale to the construction of massive underground installations. Moreover, in the 1950s, these principles, applied in a massive research effort, resulted in the ability to distinguish the release of energy by an underground nuclear test from that produced by a natural seismic event. As weapons and defenses against them continue to evolve, geoscience and geoscientists will play an increasingly important role in military planning and operations in diverse and challenging environments worldwide.

Abstract The history of remarkable engineering construction feats is as old as man’s records. Subsurface mining for copper ore on the Sinai Peninsula began at least 15,000 years ago (Stone Age), and tunneling (adit) was started about 3500 B.C. As civilization and commerce advanced and people congregated in cities, the problem of water-supply protection agianst the attacks of enemies became increasingly acute, and new methods, such as construction of aqueducts and reservoirs, had to be devised. Use of “geologists” to assist in evaluating natural sites for engineering works and related legal implications has a long history if we include the lore of our forefathers regarding natural conditions and their meaning. In North America, early assistance and insight on geological reasoning for engineering purposes was fostered by a group of pioneers whose endeavors are described in this chapter; geological input for litigation and forensic purposes is discussed in Chapters 24 and 25 of this volume. However, any review of the early efforts in application of geology to engineering works in North America must recognize the fund of knowledge that had been acquired by earlier pioneers in Europe and Asia, and parts of Central and South America. The numerous remnants and intact examples of remarkable construction feats built in past centuries represent a legacy to the early “engineer’s” skills. It is not difficult to imagine a relation and interdependence between the “architect-engineer” and the “geologist,” which began far back in ancient times. Obviously, even then, some individuals had an awareness of rock and soil conditions and offered counsel on excavations and the properties of natural materials for siting and construction of castles, canals, water tunnels, and aqueducts.

Abstract World War II and the stress of war-time economics from 1940 to 1945 placed new demands on all phases of industry. These elements of change, combined with the effects of postwar economic expansion, were manifested in many geology-related problems. For example, (1) the need for increased supplies of industrial water in some coastal areas led to an excessive drawdown of the ground-water level and allowed sea-water encroachment; (2) construction of the Alaskan Highway in early 1940s for defense of territory led to an in-depth realization of the permafrost phenomenon and its impact on construction in arctic terrain; (3) the need for large underground storage and bombproof military facilities by the mid-1940s led to pioneering research in rock mechanics and the dynamic stress phenomenon of large-scale explosions (McCutchen, 1949; Kiersch, 1951); (4) the demands for terrain analysis to serve military actions resulted in several new aerial exploration and interpretive techniques that were later available for civil projects; and (5) more recently, geology was a major factor and was investigated extensively during the planning and construction of the Alaskan pipeline in the 1960s and 1970s (Pewe, Chapter 14, this volume). The large reservoirs built in the 1920s and 1930s increased sediment-filling to the status of a serious geological problem; then, ironically, the cleansed reservoir water created leakage problems downstream in the very canals that were formerly self-sealed by the natural silt. Each difficulty ultimately provided an improved state of knowledge and progress in engineering geology. By the 1950s, international interest was keen on a distinction between an artificial, underground nuclear explosion (test) signal and a natural seismic event; the “detectability of seismic signals” became the focus of major seismological research by the U.S. Air Force and experiments by the Terrestrial Sciences Laboratory (Haskell, 1957).

Abstract This section presents a synopsis of the evolution, function, and distribution of engineering-geological activities in the United States government. Much of the background information was obtained from material supplied by each agency in response to a written request. Other information was obtained from colleagues and library documents. Even a casual inspection of this information reveals that federal-agency engineering-geology practice from its infancy in the 1930s to its present-day maturity has followed a course that mirrors the worldwide development of the discipline. This has come about naturally as the result of agency needs that have been driven by budget, mission, and research aims. The result has been a mélange of practical applications to various civil and mining projects supported by applied and theoretical research. Federal agencies that employ geotechnical staffs, but are predominantly regulatory (e.g., Nuclear Regulatory Commission) rather than being concerned with research or practice of engineering geology, were not included in this report. Perhaps the highest tribute to the practice of engineering geology in government was stated long ago by Charles P. Berkey, himself a pioneer in the field: “. . .I claim a place of honor for these men who spend their lives in devising new ways of using their specialistic knowledge and experience and ingenuity for more effective public works and for the greater comfort and safety of men and women everywhere. . .” (Berkey, 1942). The U.S. Geological Survey (U.S.G.S.), Department of the Interior, has been involved in engineering geology for most of its 110-year life. In 1888, J. W. Powell, Director, began irrigation surveys, which were the first attempts at a national reclamation program and ultimately led to the establishment of the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation.

Abstract During the 1890s, the importance of an interrelation between geologic principles and guidance for construction of major engineering works was being clearly demonstrated through the efforts of Professor William O. Crosby (M.I.T.) and Professor James F. Kemp (Columbia). A half-century earlier, geologists in North America had begun to show this interdependence, as indicated by works of James Hall of the New York State Geological Survey in 1839 on rock cuts of the Erie Canal and William W. Mather of the Ohio Geological Survey in 1838 on rotational slides along the lake front at Cleveland. The contributions of these and other early workers are described in Chapter 1, as are other early geological studies for dams, tunnels, aqueducts, canals, and related works. However, the first organizations and groups formed to represent the early practitioners of applied geology only developed in the early 1900s. The Economic Geology Publishing Company was formed to serve the interests of all applied/economic geologists in 1905, and the first issues of Economic Geology were released that year. This scientific journal soon developed a wide circulation, both domestic and foreign, and was the medium for all four branches of applied, or economic, geology, described by D. W. Johnson in 1906 as mining, petroleum, ground water, and “applications of geology to various uses of mankind and engineering structures.” Waldemar Lindgren, chief geologist of the U.S. Geological Survey, in his 1913 textbook Mineral Deposits , defined these four branches and made reference to engineering geology practice. The main geological principles and their relevance to engineering works were put forth in the textbook by Ries and Watson (1914), Engineering Geology .

Abstract Today, engineering geologists in private industry occupy key positions in the planning, design, and construction of many different kinds of engineering works. Since the beginning of this century, it typically has been the practice of engineering-construction companies to rely on outside consultants for projects requiring geological expertise. However, with the end of World War II and the rapid development of the early 1950s, engineering-construction companies in North America began to hire geologists as staff members. A recent survey of the older major engineering-construction companies by Bechtel (1986) established that about half of the firms support engineering geology staffs in-house, while half rely solely on consultants, either individuals or specialty groups. Furthermore, many of the companies that retain engineering geologists in-house occasionally supplement their staff input with the services of outside consultants for a variety of reasons, including fulfilling contractual obligations, enhancing the work capabilities in a specific geographic area, or reinforcing expert opinions in controversial situations. Today, some of the major engineering-construction companies that support their own in-house geoscience experts include Bechtel Civil, Inc.; EBASCO Services, Inc.; Fluor Engineers, Inc.; Harza Engineering Company; Morrison-Knudsen Engineering Company; United Engineers and Constructors; and Stone and Webster Engineering Corporation. Bechtel was one of the first engineering companies to hire staff geologists. In the early 1950s, they hired Ben Warner, Victor L. Wright, Robert J. Farina, and Charles P. Benziger to work on a project-by-product basis. However, lack of permanent job status and associated benefits, as well as the inability in those days to advance professionally within the company ranks, was not encouraging to the geologists or beneficial to the company, and consequently, many of these geologists moved on to other professional situations.

Abstract Rivers provide numerous benefits to man as avenues of commerce and sources of water supply. Flood plains have rich agricultural soils, and some of the earth’s most heavily populated areas occur along rivers. Yet the riverine environment can be hazardous. Ancient civilizations struggled against floods while trying to earn a living from the fertile land adjacent to the Nile, Tigris, Euphrates, Indus, and Yellow Rivers. The worst geologic disaster known occurred in 1887 when about 800,000 Chinese lost their lives from the Yellow River flood (Costa and Baker, 1981). Another 100,000 Chinese died when the Yangtze River flooded in 1911. The great flood of 1927 extensively damaged the lower Mississippi River Valley and a flood-control plan was quickly adopted. The Arno River ripped through Florence, Italy, in 1966 and damaged one of the foremost art centers of the world. Legget (1973, p. 66) has noted that in Central Europe the builders of medieval towns generally avoided the flood plains. They were rightly afraid of floods, and recognized the difficulty of construction on the wet ground adjacent to rivers. The early sectors of the older cities were usually located on the higher ground provided by river terraces. This wise practice was not based consciously on geological training, but utilized the same craft-lore demonstrated by the builders of the Pyramids and other early works (Chapter 1, this volume). Unfortunately, since the late 1800s, buildings on flood plains has steadily increased throughout the world with the growth of major cities to satisfy pressures for urban living. In the United States, flood-related deaths continue, and annual flood damage is increasing (Rahn, 1986).

Abstract The development of knowledge in erosion and sedimentation parallels the growth of the geological sciences. In his Illustration of the Huttonian Theory of the Earth , Playfair (1802) provides lucid descriptions of erosional processes, illustrating their significance in the evolution of landscapes. Sir Charles Lyell (1830) described in uniformitarian terms the nature and importance of erosion and sediment transport. The power of rain to erode surface materials was discussed by Greenwood in 1857. Reports of the exploration of the American Southwest by the U.S. Geological Survey in the latter half of the nineteenth century are replete with the consideration of the impact of erosion and sedimentation in shaping the landscape. Most notable among these reports are those of G. K. Gilbert, whose keen observations and analytical powers allowed him to develop the basis for many of today’s important concepts in fluvial geomorphology (Gilbert, 1880). As the geological sciences moved into the twentieth century, Gilbert continued to provide theoretical bases for the comprehension of erosional and sedimentary processes. His classic discussion “The transport of debris by running water” was the result of years of flume studies and field observations (Gilbert, 1914). Gilbert’s contributions in this paper include not only a detailed discussion of processes but one of the first analytical statements regarding the impact of man on a fluvial system. Twenhofel’s (1932) famous Treatise on Sedimentation advanced our fledgling knowledge of sedimentary processes. From the field of soil conservation, Bennett (1939) synthesized existing knowledge of the impact of agricultural practices on erosional processes and sedimentation.

Abstract Coasts, often sedimentary in nature, serve as the dynamic interface between land and sea. While rocky shores exist along much of New England and the West Coast, the preponderance of United States coastal urbanization has occurred along sedimentary coasts. Indeed, much of the outer shoreline along the U.S. East and Gulf coasts is characterized by barrier systems. The study of sedimentary coasts is a multidiscipline effort involving geologists, physical geographers, and coastal engineers, including hydraulic engineers and fluid hydrodynamicists. These specialities can all be considered under the general field of coastal geomorphology wherein the morphological development of the coast, acting under the influence of winds, waves, currents, and sea-level changes, is the subject of these physical science investigations. Coastal engineering, while primarily a branch of civil engineering, leans heavily upon coastal and geological sciences. Their charge is to address both the natural and human-induced changes in the coastal zone, design structural and nonstructural devices and procedures to intercede against such changes, and evaluate the impacts of proposed solutions on these problem areas. Because numerous factors govern the development and evolution of coastal areas, solutions devised for one area will often fail if blindly applied to another. This stems from the wide-ranging morphologies and energy conditions found along the coast. Coastal engineering, therefore, is site specific, and project success requires careful collection and evaluation of all pertinent physical data from the geosciences. The coastal engineering literature is replete with coastal defense or harbor failures due to a lack of understanding of coastal processes. The importance of applied coastal research is clearly demonstrated by harbors built in Dublin, Ireland, during the nineteenth century.

Abstract Hillslopes are a fundamental unit of a landscape, comprising that reach of ground between a drainage divide and a valley floor, and thus much effort has been expended in their study. Early research by Davis (1899) and Penck (1924) was directed toward developing unified theories of slope formation and evolution. Subsequently, emphasis has shifted toward morphometric description of slopes (Strahler, 1956) and study of hillslope processes (Schumm, 1956). Currently, geomorphologists are making impressive advances in understanding hillslope forms and processes (Carson and Kirkby, 1972; Scheidegger, 1970, 1975; Huggett, 1985). While unified theories of hillslope formation and evolution are apparently many years away, the next generation of models can be based on carefully obtained measurements of hillslope processes. Slope movements of several different types are among the principal processes by which hillslopes evolve. Slope movements are downward and outward movements of slope-forming materials composed of natural rock, soils, artificial fills, or combinations of these materials. This definition is identical to the definition of landslide used by Eckel (1958a). The terms landslide and mass wasting are sometimes used synonymously for slope movement. Slope movements, however, include some processes that involve little or no true sliding, such as falls and flows, and do not include some processes contained in mass wasting such as subsidence (Sharpe, 1938). Progress in understanding and control of slope movements has been the result of a truly interdisciplinary effort involving geological scientists, engineers, physicists, and hydrologists. Most of the major practitioners in applied geology in the 19th and 20th centuries have contributed significantly to our understanding of slope movement types and processes.

Abstract Geologists have investigated many different types of subsidence (Table 1) in North America during the past 100 years. Their principal contribution has been a better understanding of subsidence processes associated with the sudden formation of sinkholes, volcanic activity (Schuster and Mullineaux, this volume), tectonism (Bonilla, this volume), and sediment compaction induced by withdrawal or natural expulsion of underground fluids. Although major advancements in the understanding of other types of subsidence processes have been made primarily by engineers and soil scientists, geologists have outlined the geologic framework within which these subsidence processes are active. Allen (1969) provides an overview of the geologic processes that contribute to subsidence and the geologic setting of subsidence. This chapter traces the evolution during the past 100 years of the conceptual understanding of land subsidence in North America caused by compaction of unconsolidated sediment induced primarily by the withdrawal of underground fluids. It reviews the ways these concepts have been applied, both to development of the theory of fluid flow through porous media and to gain insight into natural geologic processes. Four important case histories are examined, and the chapter concludes with discussions of the outlook for future investigations of subsidence in North America and a summary of research needs. Terminology used in the chapter follows Poland and others (1972). Subsidence associated with man-induced compaction is one of man’s major inadvertent engineering feats. At least 34 areas in Mexico and the United States have subsided (Fig. 1); an aggregate area of about 22,000 km 2 , approximately equal to the area of New Jersey, has been lowered more than 30 cm.

Abstract This chapter discusses some of the ways volcanic activity can affect structures, developments, facilities, and other engineering works. It is vitally important to recognize the possible effects of volcanic activity on these works of man. The large variety of volcano-related hazards now recognized records a marked recent growth in the understanding of these phenomena. The increasing application of systematic observation and analysis to current volcano-related events and to old deposits of previous events throughout the world has greatly increased our understanding of volcanic phenomena; the threat to life and property from these hazards can now be significantly reduced or avoided by careful forethought by geological scientists, engineers, and planners. Public demand, however, may prevent the withdrawal from use of lands that are affected only once in hundreds or thousands of years, and a low degree of risk in such places may be judged to be economically and socially acceptable. Volcanic eruptions are widely known and feared, yet few of their specific effects are familiar to most people. Volcanoes affect people in many positive ways; for example, erupted materials commonly produce highly fertile soils. However, the immediate effects of volcanoes on people and their engineering works are frequently negative. Although in many countries volcanic activity is a constant and severe threat, it represents only an occasional danger in the United States. That danger is serious enough, however, to warrant preparatory planning in Hawaii, Alaska, and other western states. Nonexplosive eruptions that produce lava flows are familiar volcanic phenomena; although they present little danger to people’s lives, they can severely damage property.

Abstract This chapter traces some of the ideas and concepts leading to the current understanding of the process of faulting and earthquake generation, gives examples of engineering geology investigations contributing to that understanding, describes some engineering projects that have been strongly influenced by the process, and suggests needed research. Each of these topics is discussed in sequence. The understanding of faulting and earthquakes and of the significance of these to engineering has developed over several centuries. John Michell in 1761 was probably the first to publish a cross section of a clearly recognizable fault (Adams, 1938, Fig. 66). Michell did not attribute earthquakes to faulting, but proposed the important idea that seismic vibrations were the result of the propagation of elastic waves in the earth (Adams, 1938). Charles Lyell (1830) emphasized the uplift and depression of land that accompanies earthquakes. He did not attribute earthquakes to faulting, but a contemporary of his evidently did, for the following statement appeared in a review of Lyell’s book (Scrap, 1830, p. 463): The sudden fracture of solid strata by any disruptive force must necessarily produce a violent vibratory jar to a considerable distance along the continuation of these strata. Such vibrations would be propagated in undulations, which may be expected, when influencing a mass of rocks several thousand feet at least in thickness, to produce on the surface exactly the wave-like motion, the opening and shutting of crevices, the tumbling down of cliffs and walls, and other characteristic phenomena of earthquakes. This idea was apparently disregarded, and coseismic faulting, some of which reached the ground surface, was generally considered to be the result rather than the cause of earthquakes until the time of G. K. Gilbert.

Abstract Rebound is defined as the expansive recovery of surficial crustal material, either instantaneous, or time dependent, or both, and is initiated by the removal or relaxation of superincumbent loads (Nichols, 1980). The displacements caused by rebound allow elastic and inelastic relaxation of the crustal masses to occur. The outward and upward movements associated with rebound are uplift displacements related to rebound processes. Rebound of geological materials is attributed to stress relief, but the process is poorly understood and the basis for predicting time-dependent rebound has not been clearly established. Not only are changes of stress important to the rebound process, but so are fabric, material properties, and anisotropy of the geologic materials, as well as external environmental factors such as moisture and temperature (Nichols, 1980). The problem of rebound is one with which design and construction engineers must deal, whenever the equilibrium of geologic materials is disturbed, especially in large excavations both surface and underground. In areas where rebound deformations can significantly affect engineering structures, it is desirable to understand rebound behavior, and to determine practical guidelines for prediction of the short- and long-term consequences of rebound. The phenomenon of rebound undoubtedly has been observed by ancient as well as modern quarry operators, civil engineers, and applied geologists. In the United States and England, recorded accounts of rebound and actual measurements made to study the phenomenon appear in the mid-19th century (Nichols and Varnes, 1984) describing spontaneous and explosive expansion in a wide range of quarried rock types (sandstones, granites, vein rock).

Abstract The long, cold winters and short, cool summers in the polar regions result in the formation of a layer of frozen ground that does not completely thaw during the year. This perennially frozen ground, known as permafrost, affects many human activities in the Arctic, as well as in the Subarctic and at high altitudes, and causes problems that are not experienced elsewhere. Permafrost is a naturally occurring material that has a temperature below 0°C continuously for two or more years (Muller, 1943, p. 3). This layer of frozen ground is designated exclusively on the basis of temperature. Part or all of its moisture may be unfrozen, depending upon the chemical composition of the water or depression of the freezing point by capillary forces. For example, permafrost with saline soil moisture, such as that found under the ocean immediately off the arctic shores, might be colder than 0°C for several years but would contain no ice and thus would not be firmly cemented. Most permafrost is consolidated by ice; permafrost with no water, and thus no ice, is termed dry permafrost. The upper surface of permafrost is called the permafrost table. In permafrost areas, the surficial layer of ground that freezes in the winter (seasonally frozen ground) and thaws in summer is called the active layer. The thickness of the active layer under most circumstances depends mainly on the moisture content; it varies from 10 to 20 cm in thickness in wet organic sediments to 2 to 3 m in well-drained gravels. Permafrost is a widespread phenomenon in the northern part of the Northern Hemisphere, underlying an estimated 20 percent of the land surface of the world (Fig. 1).

Abstract Today, glaciers cover 10 percent of the Earth’s land area, whereas 30 percent was covered during the maximum glaciation of the Quaternary Period. Although 20 percent of the Earth’s surface has a direct glacial heritage, another 12 percent was impacted by glacially related climates and sediments. Moreover, wind-blown silt, or loess, and long-travelled outwash have also affected many terrains, as in China, eastern Europe, and the Missouri-Mississippi Valley region. The glacial deposits that cover 10 million km 2 in North America have profoundly influenced the terrain and must be accounted for when making land-use decisions, whether for agriculture, urbanization, or planning and construction. The applied geological scientist must consider and understand the vast differences that occur in the many different types of glacial deposits in order to successfully utilize the natural materials and/or sites for man’s use and his engineering works. Each of the different glacial sediments, whether till, ice contact, or outwash, will exhibit different physical characteristics when subjected to man-induced changes. These different properties become manifest when the deposits are exposed in excavations, bearing loads are emplaced, or the material is utilized for construction purposes. Furthermore, there are many dissimilarities among glacigenic sediments even within broad categories. For example, lodgement till has entirely different values of consolidation, permeability, and density than either melt-out till, or flowtill. Many failures of engineering works have occurred when these quality differences have not been recognized in the field (see Kiersch, chapters 1 and 22, this volume). Glacial deposits create their own landforms and landscapes, and proper identification of these terranes can prove important to the applied geologist.