Abstract It is common practice to incorporate deterministic transmissibility multipliers into simulation models of siliciclastic reservoirs to take into account the impact of faults on fluid flow, but this is not common practice in carbonate reservoirs due to the lack of data on fault permeability. Calculation of fault transmissibilities in carbonates is also complicated by the variety of mechanisms active during faulting, associated with their high heterogeneity and increased tendency to react with fluids. Analysis of the main controls on fault-rock formation and permeability from several carbonate-hosted fault zones is used to enhance our ability to predict fault transmissibility. Lithological heterogeneity in a faulted carbonate succession leads to a variety of deformation and/or diagenetic mechanisms, generating several fault-rock types. Although each fault-rock type has widely varying permeabilities, trends can be observed dependent on host lithofacies, juxtaposition and displacement. These trends can be used as preliminary predictive tools when considering fluid flow across carbonate fault zones. Fewer mechanisms occur at lower displacements (<30 m), creating limited fault-rock types with a narrow range of low permeabilities regardless of lithofacies juxtaposition. At increased displacements, more fault-rock types are produced at juxtaposition of different lithofacies, with a wide range of permeabilities.

Abstract: A branch line is the line of intersection between two hard-linked fault planes, or between two parts of a single fault plane of more complex geometry. Of interest is whether they provide any information about the kinematic development of the fault system to which they belong. Analysis of branch lines from a variety of normal fault networks, interpreted on seismic reflection datasets, shows that the branch lines are generally aligned parallel to the extension direction. This relationship is shown to be a feature of polymodal (orthorhombic) fault systems produced by three-dimensional strain. Branch lines between bimodal faults (conjugate, with opposing dip) tend to be perpendicular to the slip direction.

Abstract: Fault growth could be achieved by (1) synchronous increases in displacement and length or (2) rapid fault propagation succeeded by displacement-dominated growth. The second of these growth models (here referred to as the constant length model) is rarely applied to small outcrop-scale faults, yet it can account for many of the geometric and kinematic attributes of these faults. The constant length growth model is supported here using displacement profiles, displacement–length relationships and tip geometries for a system of small strike-slip faults (lengths of 1–200 m and maximum displacements of 0.001–3 m) exposed in a coastal platform in New Zealand. Displacement profiles have variable shapes that mainly reflect varying degrees of fault interaction. Increasing average displacement gradients with increasing fault size (maximum displacement and length) may indicate that the degree of interaction increases with fault size. Horsetail and synthetic splays confined to fault-tip regions are compatible with little fault propagation during much of the growth history. Fault displacements and tip geometries are consistent with a two-stage growth process initially dominated by propagation followed by displacement accumulation on faults with near-constant lengths. Retardation of propagation may arise due to fault interactions and associated reduction of tip stresses, with the early transition from propagation-to displacement-dominated growth stages produced by fault-system saturation (i.e. the onset of interactions between all faults). The constant length growth model accounts for different fault types over a range of scales and may have wide application.

Abstract: Analyses of normal faults in mechanically layered strata reveal that material properties of rock layers strongly influence fault nucleation points, fault extent (trace length), failure mode (shear v. hybrid), fault geometry (e.g. refraction through mechanical layers), displacement gradient (and potential for fault tip folding), displacement partitioning (e.g. synthetic dip, synthetic faulting, fault core displacement), fault core and damage zone width, and fault zone deformation processes. These detailed investigations are progressively dispelling some common myths about normal faulting held by industry geologists, for example: (i) that faults tend to be linear in dip profile; (ii) that imbricate normal faults initiate due to sliding on low-angle detachments; (iii) that friction causes fault-related folds (so-called normal drag); (iv) that self-similar fault zone widening is a direct function of fault displacement; and (v) that faults are not dilational features and/or important sources of permeability.

Abstract: Layer-bound normal faults commonly form polygonal faults with fine-grained sediments early in their burial history. When subject to anisotropic stress conditions, these faults will be preferentially oriented. In this study we investigate how faults grow, evolve and interact within regional-scale layer-bound fault systems characterized by parallel faults. The intention is to understand the geometry and growth of faults by applying qualitative and quantitative fault analysis techniques to a 3D seismic reflection dataset from the Levant Basin, an area containing a unique layer-bound normal fault array. This analysis indicates that the faults were affected by mechanical stratigraphy, causing preferential nucleation sites of fault segments, which were later linked. Our interpretation suggests that growth of layer-bound faults at a basin scale generally follows the isolated model, accumulating length proportional to displacement and, when subject to an anisotropic regional stress field, resembling to a great extent classical tectonic normal faults.

Abstract: Fault-segment boundaries initiate, evolve and die as a result of the propagation, interaction and linkage of normal faults during crustal extension. However, little is known about the distribution, evolution and controls on the development of relay ramps, which are the key structures developed at synthetic segment boundaries. In this study, we use a series of scaled physical models (wet clay) to investigate the distribution and evolution of fault-segment boundaries within an evolving normal-fault population during orthogonal extension. From the models, we can establish a simple geometrical classification for segment boundaries, analyse their spatial and temporal evolution, and identify key factors that influence their variability. Development of overlapping fault tips is a prerequisite for fault growth via segment linkage. Synthetic segment boundaries are the most common segment boundary type developed in the models. The proportion of synthetic segment boundaries in the total fault population increases with increasing strain, whereas conjugate (antithetic) segment boundaries are very rare. Hanging-wall-breached relay ramps are the most common type (>70%) of breached-segment boundary, followed by footwall-breached relay ramps (<25%). Transfer faults are uncommon in our models. The type of breached segment boundary that develops cannot be predicted based on fault overlap to fault spacing aspect ratio alone. Instead, we show that fault linkage occurs in a range of styles across a wide range of fault overlap to fault spacing ratios (1:1–7:1). Furthermore, we show that fault spacing is constrained by stress-reduction shadows at the time of fault nucleation, whereas fault overlap changes during fault growth and interaction. Our study thus shows that scaled physical models are a powerful tool to assess the style, distribution and controls on the evolution of synthetic segment boundaries developing in rifts. Predictions from these models must now be assessed with data from natural examples exposed in the field or imaged in the subsurface.

Abstract: Fault-related folds are common structural features found at a variety of scales in extensional settings, and have been recognized in both outcrop and subsurface studies. However, the detailed geometry and origin of complex 3D folds adjacent to normal faults are poorly known, and, in some cases, are interpreted to be due to strike-slip tectonics and post-rift contraction. Here we examine the 3D geometry of seismic-scale folds in a rift margin – the Red Sea – and discuss the interrelationship between the growth of normal faults and the development of their related folds. Detailed field mapping of the NW Red Sea rift system has shown that the rift margin is dominated by two large extensional fault systems formed by a series of linked NNW-, north–south- and NNE-striking fault segments. These linked segments exhibit distinct zigzag fault patterns and combine to form a number of NNW-trending faults that dip NE with dominant hanging-wall stratal dips to the SW. Hanging-wall stratal dips define 3D extensional fault-related synclinal folds in pre- and early synrift strata. The hanging-wall synclines are kilometre-scale, gently doubly plunging, with curved axial surface traces orientated sub-parallel to the bounding faults. Field data demonstrated that these folds are formed by along-strike variations in fault displacements, and they form transverse synclines combined with hanging-wall extensional fault-propagation folds. The complex 3D geometry of the hanging-wall synclines is the result of the along-strike segment linkage. Adjacent to the bounding faults, the stratal dips are sub-parallel to the faults as a result of extensional fault-propagation folding controlled by highly anisotropic pre-rift strata. Palaeo-strain analyses of fault-slip data, together with analysis of the fold geometry, clearly indicate that the faulting and folding in the NW Red Sea are formed by pure NE–SW extension during the Late Oligocene–Miocene rifting, and that contraction or strike-slip tectonics need not be invoked.

Abstract: The active Corinth rift records hanging-wall migration of faulting and slip-rate acceleration. The rift initiated at approximately 5–4 Ma, and older parts are well exposed in the northern Peloponnese. A new correlation of chrono- and lithostratigraphy and structure across the onland central to westernmost rift with offshore data reveals westward rift propagation, as well as northward fault migration. Northward fault migration ended first in the east, with the stabilization of major north-dipping faults that now bound the Gulf. The basin then propagated to the WNW in two stages, each involving the initiation of a new fault that propagated east to SE to link to the stable fault system. Extension rates accelerated in distinct steps as the rift opened to the west. The youngest faults in the westernmost rift are associated with high seismicity and highest geodetic extension due to rapid fault growth and linkage at depth. The early synrift succession infilled substantial inherited palaeo-relief. Antecedent rivers established vigorous sediment-routing systems that controlled facies distribution throughout rifting, albeit with drainage reorganization during fault-migration events. Multiple deepening events recorded in the stratigraphy can be due to lateral rift propagation. The transition from rift initiation to rift climax is, therefore, diachronous along the rift axis.

Abstract: Rollover is the folding of the hanging-wall sedimentary record in response to slip on listric normal faults, and is a common feature of sediment-rich, gravity-driven tectonic provinces. Rollovers have been extensively studied by means of geometrical reconstruction, and numerical and analogue modelling. However, the detailed interaction between the kinematics of bounding listric normal faults and their hanging-wall deformation is not yet fully understood. In this study, we use 3D seismic-reflection data from the Forcados-Yokri area, western Niger Delta, Nigeria, to study the lateral linkage and landwards backstepping history of an array of listric normal faults, particularly focusing on their influence on the development and evolution of hanging-wall rollovers. Five individual, partly overlapping rollover structures have been studied with respect to their relative initiation and decay time, their spatial distribution, and their relationship to the tectonic history of their respective bounding faults. We demonstrate that the studied rollovers are highly dependent on the development of their bounding faults in terms of initiation time, lateral linkage, internal structural development and decay. Fault–rollover interaction is dynamic and changes through time depending on the temporal evolution of listric faults. Four genetic types of fault–rollover interaction were identified in this study: (1) the rotation of a rollover–crestal-collapse system, controlled by a changing lateral bounding-fault orientation during fault growth; (2) a stepwise shift of rollover–crestal-collapse systems associated with rollover abandonment, controlled by the initiation of a new fault in the footwall of an older structure; (3) a gradual shift of successive rollovers controlled by branching main faults; and (4) a general landwards and upwards migration of crestal-collapse faults within a rollover above stationary listric main faults.

Abstract: Normal faults grow via a sympathetic increase in their displacement and length (‘isolated model’) or by rapid establishment of their near-final length prior to significant displacement accumulation (‘constant-length model’). The isolated model has dominated the structural geology literature for >30 years, although some 3D seismic data-based studies support the constant-length model. Because they make different predictions regarding rift development, and earthquake size and recurrence intervals in areas of continental extension, it is critical to test these models with data from natural examples. Here we outline a range of techniques that constrain the kinematics of synsedimentary normal faults and thus test competing fault growth models. We then apply these techniques to three seismically imaged faults, showing that, in general, they grew in accordance with the constant-length model, although periods of relatively minor tip propagation and coeval displacement accumulation, characteristics more consistent with the isolated model, also occurred. We argue that analysis of growth strata represents the best way to test competing fault growth models; most studies utilizing this approach support the constant-length fault model, suggesting it may be more widely applicable than is currently assumed. It is plausible that the very early development of large faults is, however, characterized by the development of faults that, pre-linkage, grow in accordance with the isolated model; we may simply lack the data resolution, especially in the subsurface, to resolve this very early stage of fault growth.

Abstract: The initiation, growth and interaction of faults within an extensional rift is an inherently four-dimensional process where connectivity with time and depth are difficult to constrain. A 3D discrete element model is employed that represents the crust as a two-layered brittle–ductile system in which faults nucleate, propagate and interact in response to local heterogeneities and resulting stresses. Faults nucleate in conjugate sets throughout the model brittle crust; they grow through a combination of tip propagation and interaction of co-linear segments to form larger normal faults. Segment linkage occurs by merging of adjacent fault segments located along strike, downdip or oblique to one another. Finally, deformation localizes onto the largest faults. Displacement distribution on faults is highly variable with marked along-strike and temporal variations in displacement rates. Displacement maxima continuously migrate as smaller fault segments interact and link to form the final fault plane. As a result, displacement maxima associated with fault nucleation sites are not coincident with the location of the maximum finite displacement on a fault where segment linkage overprints the record. The observed style of fault growth is consistent with the isolated growth model in the earliest stages which then gives way to a coherent (constant-length) fault growth model at greater strains.

Abstract: Field analysis shows that fault cores of brittle, extensional faults at a medium to mature stage of development are commonly dominated by lozenge-shaped horses (fault-core lenses) characterized by a variety of lithologies, including intact, mildly to strongly deformed country rock derived from the footwalls and hanging walls, various types of fault rocks of the protocatalasite and breccia series, breccia, fault gouge and clay smear. The lenses are sometimes stacked to form complex duplexes. These structures are commonly separated by high-strain zones of sheared cataclasite, and/or clay smear/clay gouge. The geometry and distribution of clay gouge in high-strain zones sometimes display evidence of intrusion, indicating high fluid pressure. Although the sizes of the horses vary over several orders of magnitude, they frequently display a length:thickness (a:c) ratio of between 1:4 and 1:15. The high-strain zones of fault rocks commonly constitute unbroken, 3D membranes that are likely to constrain fluid communication both across and along the fault zone. There are significant contrasts in fault core architecture that are probably related to processes associated with contrasting fluid pressure, strain intensity and strain hardening/strain softening. Faults associated with strain softening are characterized by less abundant brittle deformation products and are less likely to be conduits for fluid flow compared to those that are affected by strain hardening.

Abstract: In this paper, we document the early stage of fault-zone development based on detailed observations of mesocale faults in layered rocks. The vertical propagation of the studied faults is stopped by layer-parallel faults contained in a weak layer. This restriction involves a flat-topped throw profile along the fault plane and modifications of the fault structures near the restricted tips, with geometries ranging from planar structures to fault zones characterized by abundant parallel fault segments. The ‘far-field’ displacement (i.e. the sum of the displacement accumulated by all the fault segments and the folding) measured along the restricted faults exhibiting this segmentation may have flat-topped shapes or triangular shapes when fault-related folding is observed above the layer-parallel faults. We develop a model from the observations. In this model, during the course of restriction, a fault forms as a simple isolated planar structure, then parallel fault segments successively initiate to accommodate the increasing displacement. We assume that, eventually, the fault propagates beyond the layer-parallel fault. This model implies first that fault widening is controlled by the fault capacity to propagate vertically in the layered section. Likewise, owing to restriction, fault growth occurs with non-linear increases in maximum displacement, length and thickness.

Abstract: Interbedded shale and limestone successions in the Kilve Beach area, Bristol Channel Basin, UK, provide insights on fracture networks around normal faults in fine-grained lithologies. Fracture sets with distinct orientations are characteristic of both shale and limestone beds. Shear fractures (mode II) predominate in the shaly units, and they have typically more gentle dips and a larger spread in orientations than extension veins and shear fractures in the limestones. Fracture intensities decrease away from the fault core, but maximum intensities, total number of fractures and widths of the damage zones appear to be independent of throw for normal faults with offsets of less than 20 m. Thus, there is no clear systematic relationship between fault throw and damage zone width in the shales studied by us. However, an asymmetry in the fracture distribution is evidenced by a wider hanging-wall damage zone and differences in fracture orientations in some cases. We interpret the asymmetry and spread in fracture orientations to be the result of propagating fault-tip process zones and the tempo-spatial impact of fault-slip events.

Abstract: The growth of normal faults in mechanically layered sequences is numerically modelled using three-dimensional Distinct Element Method (DEM) models, in which rock comprises an assemblage of bonded spherical particles. Faulting is induced by movement on a pre-defined normal fault at the model base whilst a constant confining pressure is maintained by applying forces to particles lying at the model top. The structure of the modelled fault zones and its dependency on confining pressure, sequence (net:gross) and fault obliquity are assessed using various new techniques that allow (a) visualization of faulted horizons, (b) quantification of throw partitioning and (c) determination of the fault zone throw beyond which theoretical juxtaposition sealing occurs along the entire zone length. The results indicate that fault zones become better localized with increasing throw and confinement. The mechanical stratigraphy has a profound impact on fault zone structure and localization: both low and high net:gross sequences lead to wide and relatively poorly localized faults. Fault strands developing above oblique-slip normal faults form, on average, normal to the greatest infinitesimal stretching direction in transtensional zones. The model results are consistent with field observations and results from physical experiments.

Abstract: The total throw across a fault zone may not occur entirely on a single fault strand but may be distributed onto several strands or may be accommodated by distributed deformation within or adjacent to the fault zone. Here we conduct a quantitative analysis of the partitioning of throw into three components, the throw accommodated by: (a) the largest fault strand; (b) subsidiary faults; and (c) continuous deformation in the form of bed rotation in sympathy with the fault downthrow direction. This analysis is applied to seven seismic-scale fault zones at outcrop resolution (maximum throw 50 m) that were mapped over a four-year period during open-cast lignite mining within the late Miocene–Pliocene Ptolemais Basin, West Macedonia, Greece. The analysis shows that the fault zones offsetting the lignite–marl sequence are more localized at higher throws with progressively more of the total throw accommodated by the largest fault strand. Normal drag, which can account for up to 12 m of the total throw, accommodates a lower proportion of the total throw on larger faults. It appears that initial fault segmentation is the main control on the degree of, and spatial variation in, fault throw partitioning. Gold Open Access: This article is published under the terms of the CC-BY 3.0 license