Abstract Iron oxide copper-gold (IOCG) and Kiruna-type iron oxide-apatite (IOA) deposits are commonly spatially and temporally associated with one another, and with coeval magmatism. Here, we use trace element concentrations in magnetite and pyrite, Fe and O stable isotope abundances of magnetite and hematite, H isotopes of magnetite and actinolite, and Re-Os systematics of magnetite from the Los Colorados Kiruna-type IOA deposit in the Chilean iron belt to develop a new genetic model that explains IOCG and IOA deposits as a continuum produced by a combination of igneous and magmatic-hydrothermal processes. The concentrations of [Al + Mn] and [Ti + V] are highest in magnetite cores and decrease systematically from core to rim, consistent with growth of magnetite cores from a silicate melt, and rims from a cooling magmatic-hydrothermal fluid. Almost all bulk δ 1 8 O values in magnetite are within the range of 0 to 5‰, and bulk δ 56 Fe for magnetite are within the range 0 to 0.8‰ of Fe isotopes, both of which indicate a magmatic source for O and Fe. The values of δ 1 8 O and δ D for actinolite, which is paragenetically equivalent to magnetite, are, respectively, 6.46 ± 0.56 and −59.3 ± 1.7‰, indicative of a mantle source. Pyrite grains consistently yield Co/Ni ratios that exceed unity, and imply precipitation of pyrite from an ore fluid evolved from an intermediate to mafic magma. The calculated initial 187 Os/ 188 Os ratio (Os i ) for magnetite from Los Colorados is 1.2, overlapping Os i values for Chilean porphyry-Cu deposits, and consistent with an origin from juvenile magma. Together, the data are consistent with a geologic model wherein (1) magnetite microlites crystallize as a near-liquidus phase from an intermediate to mafic silicate melt; (2) magnetite microlites serve as nucleation sites for fluid bubbles and promote volatile saturation of the melt; (3) the volatile phase coalesces and encapsulates magnetite microlites to form a magnetite-fluid suspension; (4) the suspension scavenges Fe, Cu, Au, S, Cl, P, and rare earth elements (REE) from the melt; (5) the suspension ascends from the host magma during regional extension; (6) as the suspension ascends, originally igneous magnetite microlites grow larger by sourcing Fe from the cooling magmatic-hydrothermal fluid; (7) in deep-seated crustal faults, magnetite crystals are deposited to form a Kiruna-type IOA deposit due to decompression of the magnetite-fluid suspension; and (8) the further ascending fluid transports Fe, Cu, Au, and S to shallower levels or lateral distal zones of the system where hematite, magnetite, and sulfides precipitate to form IOCG deposits. The model explains the globally observed temporal and spatial relationship between magmatism and IOA and IOCG deposits, and provides a valuable conceptual framework to define exploration strategies.

Abstract We examined the copper isotope ratio of primary and secondary copper mineralization of porphyry copper deposits. Distinct Cu isotope reservoirs exist for high-temperature hypogene, enrichment, and leach cap minerals. Chalcopyrite from high-temperature primary mineralization forms a relatively tight cluster of δ 65 Cu values of +1 to –1 per mil, whereas secondary minerals formed by low-temperature reveal a range of δ 65 Cu values from –16.96 to +9.98 per mil. Secondary chalcocite is relatively heavy, with δ 65 Cu varying from –0.3 to +6.5 per mil. Leach cap minerals dominated by Fe oxides (jarosite, hematite, and goethite) are relatively light, ranging from –9.9 to +0.14 per mil. A distinct pattern of heavier copper isotopes in supergene samples and a lighter isotopic signature exists in the leach cap and oxidation zone minerals. The pattern presents an excellent tool for using Cu isotopes for exploration through providing the following information: (1) identification of highly fractionated copper isotope ratios in copper sulfide and Fe oxide samples that indicate supergene processes and the extent of leaching and enrichment of copper, and (2) identification of highly fractionated copper isotope ratios in surface and/or groundwaters that indicate the active weathering of copper sulfides that experienced significant enrichment.

Abstract The Zambian Copperbelt accounts for approximately 46 percent of the production and reserves of the Cen tral African Copperbelt, the largest and highest grade sediment-hosted stratiform copper province known on Earth. Deposits in the Zambian Copperbelt are hosted by the Neoproterozoic Katangan Supergroup, a rela tively thin (~5 km) basinal succession of predominantly marginal marine and terrestrial metasedimentary rocks that lacks significant volumes of igneous rocks. The stratigraphic architecture of the Katangan Supergroup in the Zambian Copperbelt is comparable to that of Phanerozoic rift systems. The basal portion of the sequence (Lower Roan Group) contains continental sandstones and conglomerates deposited in a series of restricted sub-basins controlled by extensional normal faults. These largely terrestrial sediments are abruptly overlain by a re gionally extensive, variably organic rich marginal marine siltstone/shale (Copperbelt Orebody Member, or “Ore Shale”) that contains the majority of ore deposits. This horizon is overlain by laterally extensive marine car bonates and finer grained clastic rocks that evolved through time into a platformal sequence of mixed carbon ate and clastic (Upper Roan Group) rocks with abundant evaporitic textures, including widespread breccias thought to record the former presence of salt, now dissolved. Rocks of the overlying Mwashia and Kundelungu groups are dominantly shallow marine in origin. Three significant tectonic events affected the basin. Extension associated with early rifting led to the devel opment of isolated fault-controlled basins and subsequent linkage of these basins along master faults at the time of Copperbelt Orebody Member deposition. A later period of extension occurred during late Mwashia to early Kundelungu time (~765–735 Ma) and is associated with limited mafic magmatism. Basin inversion and later compressive deformation (~595–490 Ma) culminated in upper greenschist-facies metamorphism (~530 Ma) in the Zambian Copperbelt. The majority of ore deposits in the Zambian Copperbelt occur within a 200-m stratigraphic interval centered on the rocks of the Copperbelt Orebody Member. Deposits are broadly stratiform and are grouped into argillite- (70% of ore) and arenite-hosted (30% of ore) types. The distribution, geometry , and size of deposits are fundamentally controlled by early subbasin fault architecture and the availability of both in situ and mobile reductants, the distribution of which is linked to basin structures. Argillite-hosted deposits occur within rela tively dark and locally carbonaceous siltstones and shales, suggesting the former presence of an in situ organic reductant. These deposits are laterally extensive with strike lengths up to 17 km. Arenite-hosted deposits occur in both the footwall and hanging wall of the Ore Shale and have maximum strike lengths of 5 km. They occur at sites that were geometrically favorable for mobile hydrocarbon or sour gas accumulation. Both argillite- and arenite-hosted deposits contain so-called barren gaps of weakly to unmineralized strata that are typically asso ciated with the fault-bounded shoulders of early subbasins. Two mineralization assemblages occur in the Zambian Copperbelt. The volumetrically dominant type con sists of prefolding disseminated and lesser vein-hosted Cu-Co sulfides. The most typical sulfide assemblage in the deposits is chalcopyrite-bornite with subsidiary chalcocite and pyrite. The Zambian Copperbelt is unusual among sediment-hosted stratiform copper districts in having abundant Co and low Ag, Zn, and Pb. The Cu-Co sulfide carrollite is widespread in the district, although cobalt is present in economic quantities in only some deposits on the western side of the district. The Zambian Copperbelt also contains ubiquitous, but volumetri cally minor, Cu-U-Mo-(Au) mineralization in postfolding veins. Cu-Co sulfides display complex textural relationships that are best explained by multistage ore formation. Diagenetic to late diagenetic mineralization is indicated by the typically nonfracture-controlled distribution of both sulfide and gangue phases, replacive textures of Cu-Co sulfides after diagenetic cements and pyrite, and an approximate 815 Ma Re-Os isochron age for sulfide precipitation at the Konkola deposit. Brines ca pable of mobilizing metals were most likely generated during development of evaporitic environments in units of the Upper Roan Group, and/or subsequent dissolution of these evaporites to form the Upper Roan Group breccias. Late diagenetic to early orogenic mineralization is recorded by prefolding bedding-parallel veinlets and tex turally and compositionally comparable disseminated Cu-Co sulfides. An Re-Os isochron age on Cu-Co sul fides from two arenite- and one argillite-hosted deposits of 576 ± 41 Ma is consistent with early orogenic hy drocarbon or sour gas production. The minor Cu-U-Mo-(Au) mineralization event occurred following postpeak metamorphism, at approximately 500 Ma. The Zambian Copperbelt ore province is characterized by stratigraphically and laterally widespread meta somatism that records a protracted history of basinal brine migration. Although the alteration history is com plex, it can be broadly categorized into an early Ca-Mg-SO 4 , anhydrite- and dolomite-dominant stage involv ing brine reflux below the level of Upper Roan Group evaporites; a second, K-dominant stage characterized by widespread and commonly intense development of K-feldspar and locally sericite, best developed in rocks of the Lower Roan Group and associated with ore; and a third, Na-dominant stage characterized by development of albite, commonly at the expense of earlier-formed K-feldspar. Albite dominates in Upper Roan Group brec cias and Mwashia-Lower Kundelungu strata. It is also locally associated with a late Cu-U-Mo-(Au) vein event. Although none of these alteration types are direct guides to ore, they demonstrate widespread brine circula tion within the lower parts of the Katangan Supergroup.