In carbonates, fault zone architecture, distribution of different types of fault rocks in fault cores (e.g., breccias, cataclasites), and the interplay between deformation and diagenesis must be considered to predict the flow properties of a fault zone. We present the results of an integrated structural and petrophysical study of two carbonate outcrops in central Italy, where faults are known to act as dynamic seals at depth, causing ≈70 m of hydraulic head drop in a karstified groundwater reservoir. The architecture of these fault zones is very well exposed, allowing for detailed mapping of the along-strike and across-strike distribution and continuity of fault cores and associated fault rocks over a distance of ≈8 km. More than 150 samples, comprising several fault architectural elements and carbonate host rocks, were collected in transects orthogonal to the fault zones. Fault rock porosity and permeability were measured on 1-inch plugs and then linked to characteristic microstructures and fault rock textures. The results of this integration consisted of ranges of porosity and permeability for each type of fault rock. A trend of increasing comminution and decreasing pore size is evident from the outer toward the inner portions of fault cores. Three types of breccias (crackle, mosaic, and chaotic) and various types of cataclasites were identified. Crackle breccias show the highest plug permeabilities (up to hundredss of mD), whereas the ultracataclasites have the lowest plug permeability (down to 0.01 mD, which is roughly equivalent to unfractured host rock). These data reveal the interplay between various fault rocks and host rock permeability and the development of permeability anisotropy of fault zones in carbonates.

Abstract The aim of this study is to evaluate what seismic attributes are best able to highlight porous non-stratabound dolostone geobodies set in low porosity limestone. For this purpose three dolostone geobody volume scenarios were defined using outcrop based three-dimensional models to define the range of dimensions of dolostone geobodies and their association with particular fault populations. Three porosity scenarios were created using a global compilation to assign porosities to three lithologies: host limestone, bulk dolostone geobodies, and dolostone geobodies adjacent to faults. The combination of porosity and geobody volume scenarios yielded nine non-stratabound dolostone geobody scenarios. These include models in which the properties of near-fault dolostones were enhanced or degraded relative to the bulk dolostone geobody values. This allows for the effects of processes such as overdolomitization or dissolution to be implicitly explored, since those processes can degrade or enhance near-fault properties such as porosity, although in all scenarios dolostone porosities are greater than host limestone porosity. Density and compressional velocity ( V p ) were assigned to the scenarios based on a global compilation of the density, porosity, and V p in limestones and dolostones to allow for the calculation of acoustic impedance volumes that are representative of the range of values that could exist at depth. Synthetic seismic cubes and a suite of 14 seismic attributes were generated for each of the nine dolostone scenarios. Each attribute response was evaluated for its potential to highlight porous non-stratabound dolostone geobodies. Attributes that are most sensitive to lateral changes in acoustic properties rank the highest in the evaluation, followed by amplitude attributes, followed in turn by frequency attributes. Continuity attributes rank poorly in this example because fault offset is relatively small and is obscured by dolomitization.

Abstract Pressure-solution cleavage is frequently among the most abundant mesostructures in carbonate thrust wedges. It can exert a primary function in fluid migration, and consequently, understanding its time-space evolution can significantly impact the reservoir modeling and performance. The evidence that pressure-solution cleavage is commonly at a high angle to bedding and, in many cases, displays a frequency distribution relating to the host-fold geometry indicates a partial synfolding development driven by fault-fold kinematics. Double-edge fault-propagation folding assumes layer-parallel shortening during fold evolution. Accordingly, this model can provide a tool for inferring the distribution of pressure-solution cleavage within thrust-related folds that, under appropriate stress conditions, can significantly improve secondary porosity and permeability in reservoirs. We summarize the pressure-solution cleavage pattern in three anticlines that have possibly developed by double-edge fault-propagation folding, and then we analyze the deformation patterns associated with double-edge fault-propagation folding, investigating the influence of different model parameters (i.e., ramp propagation history, shape, and initial length) onto the cross-sectional deformation pattern in fault-propagation anticlines. Modeling results indicate that, in carbonate thrust wedges, forelimb panels and footwall sectors close to the thrust ramp can provide promising targets for hydrocarbon exploration.

Abstract Intraplate strike-slip deformation belts are typically steeply-dipping structures that develop in both oceanic and continental lithosphere where they form some of the largest and most spectacular discontinuities found on Earth. In both modern and ancient continental settings, intraplate strike slip deformation belts are of major importance in accommodating horizontal displacements where they additionally form very persistent zones of weakness that substantially influence the rheological behaviour of the lithosphere over very long time periods (up to 1 Ga or more). These deformation zones provide a fundamental geometric, kinematic and dynamic link between the more rigid plate-dominated tectonics of the oceans and the non-rigid, complex behaviour of the continents. During convergence, they help to transfer major displacements deep into the plate interiors. During divergence, they act as transfer zones that segment rifts, passive continental margins and, ultimately, oceanic spreading ridges. Such belts are also of great economic importance, controlling the location of many destructive earthquakes, offshore and onshore hydrocarbon deposits and metalliferous ore deposits. In the oceans, intraplate strike-slip movements are relatively minor along transform-related fracture zones, but there are an increasing number of documented examples that may reflect spatial and temporal variations in spreading rate along individual active ridge segments.

Abstract We review a set of geological and geophysical observations that strongly support a coherent deformation of the entire lithosphere in major intracontinental wrench faults. Tectonic studies of wrench faults eroded down to the middle to lower crust show that, even in cases in which the lower to middle crust is partially melted, strain remains localized (although less efficiently) in transcurrent shear zones. Seismic profiling as well as seismic tomography and magnetotelluric soundings provide strong argument in favour of major wrench faults crosscutting the Moho and deforming the upper mantle. Pn velocity anisotropy, shear-wave splitting and electric conductivity anisotropy measurements over major wrench faults and in transpressional domains support that a wrench fault fabric exists over most or even the entire lithosphere thickness. These seismic and electrical anisotropies are generated by a crystallographic preferred orientation of olivine and pyroxenes developed in the mantle during the fault activity, which is frozen in the lithospheric mantle when the deformation stops. The preservation of such a ‘wrench fault type’ fabric within the upper mantle may have major effects on the subsequent tectonothermal behaviour of continents, because olivine is mechanically and thermally anisotropic. Indeed, the association of numerical models and laboratory data on textured mantle rocks strongly suggests that the orogenic continental lithosphere is an anisotropic medium with regards to its stiffness and to heat diffusion. This anisotropy may explain the frequent reactivation, at the continents scale, of ancient lithospheric-scale wrench faults and transpressional belts during subsequent tectonic events.

Abstract Analogue model experiments using both brittle and viscous materials were performed to investigate the development and interaction of strike-slip faults in zones of distributed shear deformation. At low strain, bulk dextral shear deformation of an initial rectangular model is dominantly accommodated by left-stepping, en echelon strike-slip faults (Riedel shears, R) that form in response to the regional (bulk) stress field. Push-up zones form in the area of interaction between adjacent left-stepping Riedel shears. In cross sections, faults bounding push-up zones have an arcuate shape or merge at depth. Adjacent left-stepping R shears merge by sideways propagation or link by short synthetic shears that strike subparallel to the bulk shear direction. Coalescence of en echelon R shears results in major, through-going faults zones (master faults). Several parallel master faults develop due to the distributed nature of deformation. Spacing between master faults is related to the thickness of the brittle layers overlying the basal viscous layer. Master faults control to a large extent the subsequent fault pattern. With increasing strain, relatively short antithetic and synthetic faults develop mostly between old, but still active master faults. The orientation and evolution of the new faults indicate local modifications of the stress field. In experiments lacking lateral borders, closely spaced parallel antithetic faults (cross faults) define blocks that undergo clockwise rotation about a vertical axis with continuing deformation. Fault development and fault interaction at different stages of shear strain in our models show similarities with natural examples that have undergone distributed shear.

Abstract The paper presents a geodynamic interpretation of the deep structure and active tectonics of the northern Tien Shan, with particular emphasis on strike-slip motions, which produced a pull-apart in the centre of the Issyk-Kul basin. The study is based on a detailed interpretation of satellite imagery, fault plane solutions of earthquakes, seismic, and geodetic data. Seismic and magnetotelluric studies show tectonic layering of the Tien Shan lithosphere, with several nearly horizontal viscoelastic layers and the lower layer underthrust northward in the northern Tien Shan. This active process may be responsible for the intricate present-day tectonic framework of the northern Tien Shan. The recent tectonics of the northern Tien Shan inherits the earlier structure: The lens-shaped Issyk-Kul microcontinent comprising Precambrian-Palaeozoic metamorphic and magmatic rocks is surrounded by thick shear zones which have been involved in the activity over most of the Cenozoic. In the Quaternary the strain propagated as far as the central part of the Issyk-Kul basin.

Abstract The Mongolian Altai is a Late Cenozoic intraplate strike-slip deformation belt which formed as a distant strain response to the Indo-Eurasian collision over 2000 km to the south. We report results from 5 weeks of detailed fieldwork carried out during summer 2000 in northwestern Mongolia investigating the crustal architecture of the Altai at latitude 48°N. The region can be divided into discrete Cenozoic structural domains each dominated by a major dextral strike-slip fault system or range-bounding thrust fault. Gentle bends along the major strike-slip faults are marked by transpressional uplifts including asymmetric thrust ridges, restraining bends, and triangular thrust-bounded massifs. These transpressional uplifts (Tsambagarav Massif, Altun Huhey Uul, Sair Uul, Hoh Serhiyn Nuruu, Omno Hayrhan Uula, Mengildyk Nuruu) comprise the highest mountains in the Mongolian Altai and are structural and metamorphic culminations exposing polydeformed greenschist-amphibolite grade basement recording at least two phases of Palaeozoic ductile deformation overprinted by Cenozoic brittle structures. Cenozoic thrust faults with the greatest amounts of displacement bound the W and SW sides of ranges throughout the region and consistently verge WSW. Each major range is essentially a NE-tilted block and this is reflected by asymmetric internal drainage patterns. Many faults are considered active because they deform surficial deposits, form prominent scarps, and define range fronts with low sinuosity where active alluvial fan deposition takes place. Reactivation of the prevailing NW-striking, NE-dipping Palaeozoic basement anisotropy is a regionally important control on the orientation and kinematics of Cenozoic faults. At first order, the Altai is spatially partitioned into a low-angle thrust belt that overthrusts the Junggar Basin on the Chinese side and a high-angle SW-vergent dextral transpressional belt on the Mongolian side. The mechanically rigid Hangay craton and Junggar basement block which bound the Altai on either side have played a major role in focusing Late Cenozoic deformation along their boundaries and within the Altai. The geometric relationship between rigid block boundaries, Palaeozoic basement structural anisotropy, and the dominantly NE SHmax (derived from India’s continued NE indentation) has dictated the kinematics of Late Cenozoic deformation in the Altai, Gobi Altai, and Sayan regions.

Abstract Northern Thailand is located in a structurally complex area between three major tectonic regimes, a region of extensional tectonics to the south and two major strike-slip zones, the Sagaing fault zone to the west and the Red River fault zone to the northeast. Cenozoic tectonics in northern Thailand resulted from the collision between the Indian plate and Eurasia. The continued indentation of the Indian plate into Eurasia caused polyphase extrusion of Sundaland and the movement of major strike-slip faults. The movement of these faults accompanying the regional east-west extension during Late Oligocene to Early Miocene initiated the formation of the Tertiary basins. Thirty-six major faults and forty-two intra-cratonic depositional basins in northern Thailand have been recognized and delineated using Landsat TM images. More than 70% of these basins are related to strike-slip tectonics. Five basin types have been recognized on the basis of geometric and kinematic considerations. These are fault-tip basins, pull-apart basins, fault-wedge basins, fault zone basins, and extensional basins. The opening and development of these basins was influenced by the movement of NW-trending dextral faults and NE-trending sinistral faults associated with north-south shortening and east-west extension.

Abstract Tectonic modelling of regional aeromagnetic anomaly patterns suggests Cenozoic right-lateral strike-slip faulting along an inherited fault system of the Transantarctic Mountains and adjacent hinterland. We name it here the Prince Albert Fault System. The Reeves Fault and David Fault are Cenozoic right-lateral strike-slip faults and form part of the NW-SE-striking segment of this complex fault system, extending to the eastern margin of the Wilkes Subglacial Basin. Our aeromagnetic interpretation suggests therefore that the Wilkes Subglacial Basin may be connected to the Cenozoic strike-slip kinematic framework of the Transantarctic Mountains and western Ross Sea Rift. The southernmost segment of the Prince Albert Fault System parallels the N-S-striking McMurdo Sound Fault Zone and, together with it, defines a transtensional western Ross Sea Rift margin. High-resolution aeromagnetic images define the Cape Roberts pull-apart basin and suggest that Cenozoic magmatism may have focused along the transtensional western Ross Sea Rift margin itself.

Abstract The Mesoproterozoic cover rocks of the Archaean Grunehogna Province in western Dronning Maud Land, Antarctica, are gently folded and intensely fractured by a progressive ductile to brittle deformation event. The cause was dominantly NNW-SSE transpression related to a regionally extensive intracontinental sinistral strike-slip event at c. 520 Ma. This reactivated the boundary between the Archaean Grunehogna Province and the high grade Mesoproterozic Maudheim Province, and resulted in the formation and deformation of the Cambrian Urfjell pull-apart basin. In a Gondwana refit, this strike-slip system can be linked to similar zones in southeast Africa which post-date the 750–650 Ma early Pan-African collisional events of that region. The NNW movement of the Maudheim Province along this strike-slip zone was responsible for the development of thrusts in the Lurio Belt of northern Mozambique. The driving force for this movement is considered to be related to the late Pan-African collisional events elsewhere in the growing supercontinent.

Abstract The West Antarctic Rift System is one of the largest areas of crustal extension in the world. Current interpretations on its driving mechanisms mostly rely on the occurrence of one or more mantle plumes, active during the Cenozoic or the Mesozoic. Recent studies of structural-chronological relationships between emplacement of plutons, dyke swarms, and volcanic edifices since middle Eocene in northern Victoria Land imply that magma emplacement is guided by strike-slip fault systems that dissect the western rift shoulder in Victoria Land. These studies led to a critical re-examination of the arguments used to support plume models. In Victoria Land, the linear geometry of the uplift and the relative chronology of uplift and extension are inconsistent with the traditional concepts of lithospheric evolution above a mantle plume. The geochemical signature of the mafic rocks is equivocal, because both OIB and HIMU features cannot be exclusively interpreted in terms of plume activity. From a thermal point of view, magma production rates are low compared with the core part of plume-related provinces. Additionally, the hot mantle below the West Antarctic Rift System is not documented as deep as expected for mantle plumes and the shape of thermal anomaly is related to lithospheric geometry, being linear rather than having circular symmetry. The lack of any decisive evidence for plume activity is contrasted by evidence that large-scale tectonic features guide magma emplacement: the Cenozoic fault systems reactivated inherited Palaeozoic tectonic discontinuities and their activity is dynamically linked to the Southern Ocean Fracture Zones. As an alternative to both active, plume-driven rifting and passive rifting, we propose that lithospheric strike-slip deformation could have promoted transtension-related decompression melting of a subplate mantle already decompressed and veined during the late Cretaceous amagmatic extensional rift phase. Magma ascent and emplacement occurred along the main strike-slip fault systems and along the transtensional fault arrays departing from the master faults.