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Analysis of soil following a police-led open area search and the recovery of a cold-case homicide grave
Abstract Police in the UK received information that a person had been reported as missing. Despite a diligent search and investigation, the person was not found. Several years later police received intelligence giving the location of a grave believed to contain the remains of the person previously reported as missing and now believed to be a victim of homicide. This new information suggested the missing person had been murdered and their remains were buried in a shallow, unmarked grave. Following a systematic search, the murder victim's body was found at a shallow depth, less than 1 m. Following the forensic recovery of the body, soil samples were collected at, beneath the floor of the grave, along the strike of the grave, downslope and upslope. Analysis of the soil samples showed elevated levels of putrescine, at nearly 150 ppb in the soils beneath, downslope and for several metres upslope from the body at localities where detector dogs had showed an ‘interest’ before the grave was discovered. The mineralogical analysis, using integrated automated mineralogy and petrology detected the presence of diagenetic calcite in the soil profile beneath the grave. Additionally, the organic analysis detected the presence of elevated stanols at the grave and down slope.
Front Matter
Abstract In recent decades, the polarizing light microscope has been slowly phased out of the geology curricula of many universities in the United States. This is unfortunate, as the polarizing light microscope is an instrument that is particularly well suited to overcoming problems typically encountered in forensic scenarios. Its versatility makes it uniquely powerful in provenance investigations in which sample size is limited and sample history is unknown. The polarizing light microscope can be used to determine the source rock type(s) of a sample of unconsolidated grains, either based on the mineral assemblage present in the sample or on properties observed for individual mineral grains or lithic fragments. Biological particles including pollen, spores, diatoms and botanical macerals can be identified and used to constrain the possible source of a sample. In addition, individual particles observed in the sample (geological, biological or anthropogenic) can be isolated and re-mounted for subsequent analyses that are useful for provenance determination. The inferences made can be used to produce maps illustrating potential source regions by means of geographical information systems (GIS). Several examples are provided to illustrate the various capabilities of the polarizing light microscope and its contributions to forensic soil analysis, specifically in forensic provenance investigations.
X-ray diffraction and field portable X-ray fluorescence analysis and screening of soils: project design
Abstract This paper presents the preliminary results of a study investigating the application of laboratory X-ray diffraction (XRD) and field portable X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis of soils as screening methods for forensic comparison and generalized provenancing. The study area is the Buffalo–Niagara metropolitan region in New York, a glacially draped area of the northeastern USA. For the initial stages of this study, soils are being collected from publicly accessible areas (parks, playgrounds, etc.) for mineralogical and elemental analysis. Initially, minimal sample preparation is being applied to create specimens. An investigation of the published literature reveals that there are a number of different suggested approaches for forensic application of XRD data, not all of which appear to be appropriate to the task at hand. The data being generated in this study are being used to build a reference set for comparison studies. In addition, two simulated forensic samples were collected to test the usefulness of XRD and XRF screening for determining possible regional source areas. For one sample this method was reasonably successful in identifying the general source area, while the results for the second sample were somewhat less satisfactory. In future additional sample handing and analysis protocols will be added.
Abstract In the investigation of serious crimes, soil can be, in some cases, a very valuable class of trace evidence. The complexity of soil is part of the reason why it is useful as trace evidence but is also an inherent problem, as there are many different parameters in a soil sample that could potentially be characterized. The inorganic components of soils are dominated by minerals, along with anthropogenic particulate grains; thus, the analysis of soil mineralogy as the main technique for inorganic forensic soil characterization is recommended. Typical methods that allow the bulk mineralogy to be determined, such as X-ray diffraction (XRD), do not allow the texture of the particles to be characterized. However, automated scanning electron microscopy (SEM) provides both modal mineralogy and also allows particle textures to be characterized. A recent advance in this technique has been the ability to report the modal mineralogy of a sample as ‘lithotypes’, which are defined on the basis of a combination of mineralogy and other parameters, such as grain size and mineral associations. Defined lithotype groups may include monominerallic grains but also, importantly, allow the automated quantification of rock types and other anthropogenic materials. Based on a simulated forensic scenario, the use of lithotyping is evaluated as an aid in the analysis of soil samples. This technique provides additional discrimination when comparing different soil samples.
The potential application of magnetic susceptibility as a technique for soil forensic examinations
Abstract Magnetic susceptibility measurement methodology, its reproducibility and accuracy of analysis were tested on soil samples to evaluate its potential use in forensic applications. It was observed that magnetic susceptibility can enable discrimination between soil samples, measured values are reproducible over time and the analysis can be carried out on small samples. However, in order for this method to be used in a forensic soil investigation, it is important to always adopt the same analytical protocol during analysis.
Abstract Limestone and travertine headstones of Jewish graves in the Verano Monumental Cemetery in Rome were discovered severely damaged. Police investigators suspected a group of gardeners who worked illegally in the cemetery. Tools, and other items belonging to the gardeners, were seized by the police. Traces of a white substance, and soil, were analysed using a variety of methods. The trace evidence from the graves was very similar to that retrieved from the gardeners’ tools. Evidence from several independent analytical methods strongly suggested that the gardeners’ tools had been involved in the offence.
Using soil mineral signatures to confirm sources of industrial contaminant trespass
Abstract An accompanying consequence of new industrial operations, or the expansion and enlargement of existing facilities, is contaminant encroachment from these operations onto adjacent residential properties. This often results in a favourable jury decision for the plaintiffs, providing the case can be proven. While smokestack emissions or wind-blown debris from some manufacturing operations can be readily identified in samples obtained from nearby properties (e.g. coal fly ash and mine wastes), obtaining proof that a site, or individuals, have been impacted by emissions from other processes may pose a challenge for the expert witness. As an example of the former, a mineral phase universally present in electric arc furnace smokestack discharges by mini steel mills (now widespread throughout the United States) is magnetite (FeO · Fe 2 O 3 ). When this mineral is present as non-detrital anthropogenic grains in dust and soil samples (and further identified by a manganese content three or more orders of magnitude greater than in detrital magnetite) its presence is conclusive evidence that airborne contamination from an anthropogenic source has taken place. A problem arises, however, when contaminants are emitted as a mixed gas–particulate phase whose particles are <2.5 µm in size. Emissions from paper mills may fall into this category, and invariably will contain hydrogen sulphide (H 2 S), sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ) and sulphur trioxide (SO 3 ) as gas phases. These rapidly combine with water vapour to form sulphuric acid. Dispersal can occur over a wide area as a toxic plume, and can cause a variety of acutely or chronically harmful medical problems, especially in young children and the elderly. Although acknowledged as present in stack emissions by the paper companies, evidence of the vapour phase is often difficult to find on surrounding residential properties (although its corrosive effects are invariably present). An associated particulate phase (calcite), which is used as a whitener in paper production, however, is emitted from a facility’s lime kiln and can often be used to show that contamination from a paper-manufacturing source has taken place.
Geological and palynological characterization of a river beach in Portugal for forensic purposes
Abstract Currently, it is important to use a combination of independent analytical techniques in order to reliably characterize between different samples of geological trace evidence in criminal investigations. Areínho beach, in the town of Vila Nova de Gaia (northern Portugal), is located on the southern bank of the Douro River. Although isolated, it is a very busy area during the summer and other seasons due to its popular water sports. The geology of the area is complex, with numerous different outcrops. In addition, there is a considerable variety of vegetation in the region, and many materials are transported by the Douro River and deposited in the area. In order to characterize this beach for forensic purposes (both criminal and environmental), sediment samples were collected and analysed using a combination of geological techniques, namely colour, particle size distribution and mineralogy. These geological techniques were combined with a palynological assessment of the sediment samples. In addition, the surrounding vegetation was characterized and seasonal vegetation surveys were carried out. In this study, the results obtained revealed homogeneous data throughout the profile in all the properties analysed. This research demonstrated that the combination of different, independent techniques used to characterize sediments from this river beach has the potential to contribute substantially to future forensic investigations.
Integration of different sediment characteristics to discriminate between sources of coastal sediments
Abstract In order to investigate the effects of geological setting and the surrounding lithology on coastal sediment samples, four properties were analysed in a series of samples collected from different localities: colour determined by spectrophotometry; particle size distribution determined by laser granulometry; chemical composition determined by ICP-MS (inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry); and low-field magnetic susceptibility determined using a susceptibility meter. A hierarchical cluster analysis was applied to ascertain the capacity of the different properties for discrimination between samples from the different geological settings. The study reveals that colour analysis only allowed discrimination between different geographical areas; particle size distribution allowed separation between dune and beach samples; chemical composition allowed discrimination between both different geological settings and also between dune and beach sands; and, finally, the combination of magnetic susceptibility with colour and particle size distribution allowed for clear discrimination between geological settings, and between beach and sand dunes. The studied samples are part of a larger and growing collection of data, and a more extensive evaluation will continue to be made for a more definitive assessment of the use of different characteristics for discrimination. So far, the results give confidence that it is meaningful to use these characteristics, especially when examined in combination, to distinguish between different locations.
How useful are databases in environmental and criminal forensics?
Abstract Advances in computational and information technologies have facilitated the acquisition of geospatial information for regional and national soil and geology databases. These have been completed for a range of purposes from geological and soil baseline mapping to economic prospecting and land resource assessment, but have become increasingly used for forensic purposes. On the question of provenance of a questioned sample, the geologist or soil scientist will draw invariably on prior expert knowledge and available digital map and database sources in a ‘pseudo Bayesian’ approach. The context of this paper is the debate on whether existing (digital) geology and soil databases are indeed useful and suitable for forensic inferences. Published and new case studies are used to explore issues of completeness, consistency, compatibility and applicability in relation to the use of digital geology and soil databases in environmental and criminal forensics. One key theme that emerges is that, despite an acknowledgement that databases can be neither exhaustive nor precise enough to portray spatial variability at the scene of crime scale, coupled with expert knowledge, they play an invaluable role in providing background or reference material in a criminal investigation. Moreover databases can offer an independent control set of samples.
Instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA) and forensic applications
Abstract Instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA) is a non-destructive analytical technique that can be applied to a wide range of materials. The method requires no pretreatment of the sample, various geometries can be used and as many as 40 elements can be determined at the ppb–ppm level, depending on the characteristics of the specific sample. The method has been used in a number of forensic applications, such as identifying the source of ammunition, gunshot residue, arsenic in hair and the source of cigarettes. In this contribution, INAA is applied to characterizing ceramics, maple syrups and grasses, and based on the data it is possible to distinguish between various types of ceramics, sources of maple syrup and the geographical/geological locations of grass samples. As an example of an environmental forensic application, it is shown that a tree-ring record can be used to map the history of environmental pollution associated with a zinc smelter. Additional applications involve characterizing the products of nuclear detonations and the provenance of diamonds.
Abstract The aim of this paper is to showcase the use of lichens in environmental forensics from an assessment of atmospheric deposition in and around the Cu smelter and former mining town of Karabash, Ural Mountains of Russia. Hypogymnia physodes was collected on its bark substrate in July 2001 from a ‘reference’ site ( c. 25 km SW of Karabash) and transplanted to 10 stations along an approximately 60 km SSW–NNE transect centred on Karabash. Transplants were collected after 2 and 3 month exposure periods. The elemental compositions of Hypogymnia and potential sources of particulates in the study area (smelter blast furnace and converter dusts, wastes, tailings, road dusts, metallurgical slags and top soils) were determined by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) and quadrupole ICP mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), and the Pb isotope compositions of the lichens and smelter dusts by multicollector ICP-MS. Particulates on lichen surfaces were analysed by scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray analysis (SEM-EDX). The method of lichen transplantation, combined with multi-element and surface particle elemental analysis, high-precision Pb isotope ratio determinations and modelling, was shown to be useful for the tracing of the smelter signal, and components from different smelter processes, for more than 25 km from Karabash town. The lichen monitoring methodology is discrete and comparatively low cost, enabling atmospheric deposition from natural and anthropogenic sources to be determined over short (<3 month) periods, and is therefore a valuable qualitative tool for environmental forensics.
Issues and opportunities in urban forensic geology
Abstract Geological trace evidence including, for example, soil, sand and rock dust has been examined using a wide range of analytical techniques. Whilst such materials are common in rural locations, in urban areas, such geological materials are often perceived to be restricted to parks, recreational areas, gardens and waste ground. However, both geological materials and the wide range of analytical methods used to characterize them are much more applicable to the whole urban environment than is generally realized, with the main differences being the types and amounts of sample analysed and the methods adopted. The range of geological applications can be summarized as those deployed at the broad (decimetres–kilometres) to small (millimetres–decimetres) scale. The broad spatial variation in soil, roadway, water, buildings materials, and wind- or water-borne particles can be contrasted with the variation in urban materials from dwellings to streets or gardens and parks, along with the micro-spatial and stratigraphical variation in each. In addition, geological principles and techniques that have not been used before can be applied to urban materials to provide comparisons of material that were not previously achievable, or to add a further proxy to established methods. The latter point is demonstrated with a case study using X-ray diffraction and QEMSCAN® of a criminal case where building plaster with peculiar qualities could be compared between a suspect's vehicle and plaster present along the escape route from a murder scene.
Abstract Forensic geology, forensic geoscience and geoforensics (see the text for definitions) are largely concerned with searches for buried objects or the use of sediment and soil analysis as evidence. Geophysics, remote sensing, geostatistics, geochemistry and geomorphology are considered part of these disciplines. Traditional outcrop geology is not often considered, with very few publications considering the role of mapped and logged geology. This work comprises a review of the few published works, followed by a range of case studies that demonstrate how traditional, outcrop-scale drift and solid geology can be used in forensic geology. These include: using geology in the search for buried explosives and human remains; the logging of solid and drift geology for analysis of disputed rock quality; and modelling groundwater flow from an illegal landfill site. Geological mapping may assist in limiting a search area or in understanding what failed in a search or forensic investigation. The scale of forensic geology discussed bridges the gap between the two traditions of forensic geology outlined above: that of searching large areas of ground and trace evidence analysis.
Abstract The objective of this paper is to draw attention to the use of air photographs, diggability surveys and the RAG (Red–Amber–Green) prioritization system during police ground searches for burials. The acquisition, analysis and interpretation of aerial imagery by a geologist may provide a useful reconnaissance technique to help delineate and prioritize search areas. A diggability survey may provide information on the ease and efficiency with which the ground may be dug and reinstated by an offender. This is influenced by the depth of the soils, the geology, groundwater, obstructions, the digging implements used, the ability of the offender, the nature of item being buried and the time frames involved. The results of a diggability survey may conveniently be presented as a RAG, map which can help in prioritizing the search. The RAG system appears to have been used independently by geologists, police/law enforcement and the military, and has evolved differently and independently since the early part of the 1900s. These methods have been applied to law enforcement searches for graves and other buried objects as demonstrated by operational case examples.
The design and implementation of a high-assurance forensic geology and police search following the discovery of the Staffordshire (Anglo Saxon) Gold Hoard
Abstract In 2009 a hoard of gold and silver objects was found in a ploughed field in Staffordshire, by a member of the public using a metal detector. The site was subjected to a detailed archaeological excavation and approximately 3940 items in total were found. Archaeologists interpreted the find as belonging to the Anglo Saxon age (seventh century AD) and probably comprising the military hilts and fixings from swords, helmets, shield, clothing and possibly books, chests and what is now thought to be a cross from the cover of a bible. Archaeologists considered that all hoard-related material that was recoverable at that time had been retrieved from the excavation. To confirm this, a forensic geology and police search was commissioned. This search provided a high level of assurance and was able to confirm that the original archaeological dig was likely to have found all/most of the buried gold that was reasonably and practicably recoverable at that time and buried in the top soil to a depth of 280 mm. In 2012, further items of interest were found in this field. These may have been buried at deeper levels or beyond the original excavation and were possibly brought to the surface by ploughing.
Abstract Identifying biomarkers of decomposition may prove to be an important area of environmental and criminal forensics research. Biomarkers released during the decomposition process can be detected in soil as a means of confirming the presence of a decomposition site in the case of relocated or scavenged remains. This study was conducted to characterize the fatty acid profile in soil containing decomposition fluid and to determine the lateral extent of fatty acid release in the cadaver decomposition island (CDI). Owing to practical and ethical restrictions, the study utilized pig carcasses as human analogues to investigate postmortem decomposition on a soil surface. Soil samples were collected from directly beneath the carcasses and at increasing distances from the carcasses within the CDI. Fatty acids were extracted with chloroform, derivatized with a silylating agent and analysed using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Saturated and unsaturated fatty acids were detected including myristic (C14:0), palmitic (C16:0), palmitoleic (C16:1), stearic (C18:0) and oleic (C18:1) acids. Fatty acids were detected up to 50 cm in the lateral extent of the CDI at significantly higher levels in decomposition soil than in the control soil. The results indicate that fatty acid analysis of decomposition soil could be used to confirm the location of a decomposition site.
Abstract Ground penetrating radar (GPR) is a non-invasive, geophysical tool that can be used for the identification of clandestine graves. GPR operates by detecting density differences in soil by the transmission of high frequency electromagnetic waves from an antenna. Domestic pig ( Sus scrofa domesticus ) carcasses were clothed in 100% cotton t-shirts and 50% cotton/50% polyester briefs, and buried at a consistent depth at three field sites of contrasting soil texture (silty clay loam, fine sand and fine sandy loam) in southern Ontario. GPR was used to detect and monitor the graves for a period of 14 months post-burial. Analysis of collected data revealed that GPR had applicability in the identification of clandestine graves in silty clay loam and fine sandy loam soils, but was not suitable for detection in the fine sandy soil studied. The results of this research have applicability within forensic investigations involving decomposing remains by aiding in the location of clandestine graves in loam soils in southern Ontario through the use of GPR.