Abstract The successful exploration geologist uses knowledge of geologic relationships and ore-deposit styles, tempered by experience, to interpret all information available from a given prospect in order to develop an understanding of its mineral potential. In the case of exploration for epithermal gold deposits, this understanding can be augmented by familiarity with active hydrothermal systems, their present-day analogues. Just as geological skills and exploration experience are the defining elements of a philosophy of exploration, the needs of a company determine, as much as the funding and skills available, which level of exploration it pursues and where: grassroots, early-stage or advanced targets. Epithermal gold deposits have size, geometry, and grade variations that can be broadly organized around some genetic classes and, therefore, influence the exploration approach or philosophy. Nearly 80 years ago, Waldemar Lindgren defined the epithermal environment as being shallow in depth, typically hosting deposits of Au, Ag, and base metals plus Hg, Sb, S, kaolinite, alunite, and silica. Even before this, Ransome recognized two distinct styles of such precious-metal deposits, leading to the conclusion that the two end-member deposits form in environments analogous to geothermal springs and volcanic fumaroles, which are dominated by reduced, neutral-pH versus oxidized, acidic fluids, respectively. The terms we use are low- and high-sulfidation to refer to deposits formed in these respective environments. The terms are based on the sulfidation state of the sulfide assemblage. End-member low-sulfidation deposits contain pyrite-pyrrhotite-arsenopyrite and high Fe sphalerite, in contrast to pyrite-enargite-luzonite-covellite typifying high-sulfidation deposits. A subset of the low-sulfidation style has an intermediate sulfidation-state assemblage of pyrite-tetrahedrite/tennantite-chalcopyrite and low Fe sphalerite. Intermediate sulfidation-state deposits are Ag and base metal-rich compared to the Au-rich end-member low-sulfidation deposits, most likely reflecting salinity variations. There are characteristic mineral textures and assemblages associated with epithermal deposits and, coupled with fluid inclusion data, they indicate that most low-sulfidation and high-sulfidation deposits form in a temperature range of about 160° to 270°C. This temperature interval corresponds to a depth below the paleowater table of about 50 to 700 m, respectively, given the common evidence for boiling within epithermal ore zones. Boiling is the process that most favors precipitation of bisulfide-complexed metals such as gold. This process and the concomitant rapid cooling also result in many related features, such as gangue-mineral deposition of quartz with a colloform texture, adularia and bladed calcite in low-sulfidation deposits, and the formation of steam-heated waters that create advanced argillic alteration blankets in both low-sulfidation and high-sulfidation deposits. Epithermal deposits are extremely variable in form, and much of this variability is caused by strong permeability differences in the near-surface environment, resulting from lithologic, structural, and hydrothermal controls. Low-sulfidation deposits typically vary from vein through stockwork to disseminated forms. Gold ore in low-sulfidation deposits is commonly associated with quartz and adularia, plus calcite or sericite, as the major gangue minerals. The alteration halos to the zone of ore, particularly in vein deposits, include a variety of temperature-sensitive clay minerals that can help to indicate locations of paleofluid flow. The areal extent of such clay alteration may be two orders of magnitude larger than the actual ore deposit. In contrast, a silicic core of leached, residual silica is the principal host of high-sulfidation ore. Outward from this commonly vuggy quartz core is a typically upward-flaring advanced argillic zone consisting of hypo gene quartz-alunite and kaolin minerals, in places with pyrophyllite, diaspore, or zunyite. The deposit form varies from disseminations or replacements to veins, stockworks, and hydrothermal breccia. During initial assessment of a prospect, the first goal is to determine if it is epithermal, and if so, its style, low-sulfidation or high-sulfidation. Other essential determinations are: (1) the origin of advanced argillic alteration, (i.e., hypogene, steam-heated, or supergene), (2) the origin of silicic alteration (e.g., residual silica or silicification), and (3) the likely controls on grade (i.e., the potential form of the orebody), because this is one of the most basic characteristics of any deposit. These determinations will define in part the questions to be asked, such as the relationship between alteration zoning and the potential ore zone, and will guide further exploration and eventual drilling, if warranted. Observations in the field must focus on the geologic setting and structural controls, alteration mineralogy and textures, geochemical anomalies, etc. Erosion and weathering must also be considered, the latter masking ore in places but potentially improving the ore quality through oxidation. As information is compiled, reconstruction of the topography and, hence, hydraulic gradient during hydrothermal activity, combined with identification of the zones of paleofluid flow, will help to identify ore targets. Geophysical data, when interpreted carefully in the appropriate geological and geochemical context, may provide valuable information to aid drilling by identifying, for example, resistive and/or chargeable areas. The potential for a variety of related deposits in epithermal districts has exploration implications. For example, there is clear evidence for a spatial, and in some cases genetic relationship between high-sulfidation epithermal deposits and underlying or adjacent porphyry deposits. Similarly, there is increasing recognition of the potential for economic intermediate sulfidation-state base metal ± Au-Ag veins adjacent to high-sulfidation deposits. By contrast, end-member low-sulfidation deposits appear to form in a geologic environment incompatible with porphyry or high-sulfidation deposits of any economic significance. The explanation for these empirical metallogenic relationships may be found in the characteristics of the magma (e.g., oxidation potential) and of the magmatic fluid genetically associated with the epithermal deposit. For effective exploration it is essential to maximize the time in the field of well-trained and experienced geologists using tried and tested methods. Understanding the characteristics of the deposit style being sought facilitates the construction of multiple working hypotheses for a given prospect, which leads to efficiently testing each model generated for the prospect, using the tools appropriate for the situation. Geologists who understand ore-forming processes and are creative thinkers, and who spend much of their time working in the field within a supportive corporate structure, will be best prepared to find the epithermal deposits that remain hidden.

Abstract Epithermal ore deposits form in the shallow portions of hydrothermal systems, from the surface to less than about 1-km depth. The hydrothermal activity is associated with contemporaneous volcanism and related magma intrusions, and the ore is hosted typically by volcanic rocks. There have been many major exploration successes since the late 1970s, e.g., El Indio (Chile), Hishikari (Japan), Ladolam (Papua New Guinea) and Yanacocha (Peru). As a result, epithermal deposits have become increasingly important producers of gold during the past 20 years and are now one of the main targets of gold exploration in volcanic belts of any age. Compared to other types of gold deposit, epithermal deposits are among the best understood in terms of diagnostic characteristics, variations in styles of mineralization and genetic processes. Part of this understanding, particularly of the basic geological and mineralogical features, comes from early studies that were detailed and insightful (e.g., Ransome, 1907; Lindgren, 1933). However, our understanding of the nature of the fluids responsible for metal transport, and the processes that lead to epithermal mineral deposition and associated wallrock alteration is due to recent detailed geological and geochemical studies both of ore deposits and, importantly, active hydrothermal systems and volcanoes. For example, hydrothermal systems that have been explored and developed for their geothermal energy potential provide direct evidence on the composition, distribution, and flow of fluids, the patterns of temperature and pressure, and processes such as boiling and mixing (Henley and Ellis, 1983). More recently, the study of discharges from volcanoes and