Abstract Hawaiian volcanoes are highly accessible and well monitored by ground instruments. Nevertheless, observational gaps remain and thermal satellite imagery has proven useful in Hawai‘i for providing synoptic views of activity during intervals between field visits. Here we describe the beginning of a thermal remote sensing programme at the US Geological Survey Hawaiian Volcano Observatory (HVO). Whereas expensive receiving stations have been traditionally required to achieve rapid downloading of satellite data, we exploit free, low-latency data sources on the internet for timely access to GOES, MODIS, ASTER and EO-1 ALI imagery. Automated scripts at the observatory download these data and provide a basic display of the images. Satellite data have been extremely useful for monitoring the ongoing lava flow activity on Kīlauea’s East Rift Zone at Pu‘u ‘Ō‘ō over the past few years. A recent lava flow, named Kahauale‘a 2, was upslope from residential subdivisions for over a year. Satellite data helped track the slow advance of the flow and contributed to hazard assessments. Ongoing improvement to thermal remote sensing at HVO incorporates automated hotspot detection, effusion rate estimation and lava flow forecasting, as has been done in Italy. These improvements should be useful for monitoring future activity on Mauna Loa.

Abstract RED SEED stands for Risk Evaluation, Detection and Simulation during Effusive Eruption Disasters, and combines stakeholders from the remote sensing, modelling and response communities with experience in tracking volcanic effusive events. The group first met during a three day-long workshop held in Clermont Ferrand (France) between 28 and 30 May 2013. During each day, presentations were given reviewing the state of the art in terms of (a) volcano hot spot detection and parameterization, (b) operational satellite-based hot spot detection systems, (c) lava flow modelling and (d) response protocols during effusive crises. At the end of each presentation set, the four groups retreated to discuss and report on requirements for a truly integrated and operational response that satisfactorily combines remote sensors, modellers and responders during an effusive crisis. The results of collating the final reports, and follow-up discussions that have been on-going since the workshop, are given here. We can reduce our discussions to four main findings. (1) Hot spot detection tools are operational and capable of providing effusive eruption onset notice within 15 min. (2) Spectral radiance metrics can also be provided with high degrees of confidence. However, if we are to achieve a truly global system, more local receiving stations need to be installed with hot spot detection and data processing modules running on-site and in real time. (3) Models are operational, but need real-time input of reliable time-averaged discharge rate data and regular updates of digital elevation models if they are to be effective; the latter can be provided by the radar/photogrammetry community. (4) Information needs to be provided in an agreed and standard format following an ensemble approach and using models that have been validated and recognized as trustworthy by the responding authorities. All of this requires a sophisticated and centralized data collection, distribution and reporting hub that is based on a philosophy of joint ownership and mutual trust. While the next chapter carries out an exercise to explore the viability of the last point, the detailed recommendations behind these findings are detailed here.

Abstract Global land-sea carbonate flux for the past 60 m.y. averages 10.3-12.5 × 10 14 g/y, surprisingly close to 12.2 × 10 14 g/y calculated using data from today's rivers. However, oceanic carbonate accumulation rates vary between 7.8 × 10 14 g/y and 28.6 × 10 14 g/y, a factor of four. Furthermore carbonate accumulation oscillates between periods of high (0-6, 22-30, 45-53 m.y.) and low deposition. Prior to 30 m.y.BP all oceans behaved in concert, but since then significant partitioning between the Pacific and Atlantic-Indian oceans has complicated the picture. Prior to 15 m.y.BP the Pacific consumed two-thirds of the total pelagic carbonate, but since that time has never consumed more than 50 percent of the total, and for the past 3 m.y. only 38 percent. This trend is related to hypsometry and changes in carbonate dissolution rates as well as to changes in relative size of the oceans resulting from seafloor spreading. Global carbonate flux through time appears to be simply related to changing land-sea ratios as calculated from sea level curves. In this system, maximum exposed continental area correlates with high pelagic carbonate flux. Deviations from this simple relationship are attributable to changes in carbonate production-dissolution ratios, latitudinal hypsometric differences, global climatic changes, and biases introduced by the simple averaging techniques used in the calculations.